Local And Unusual Essential Oils
Overview:
Please take some time to listen to your animated instructor orient you to this segment.
Then briefly scan the oils on this page, and if you have any, gather them up and bring them to the Enchanted Atrium and Garden. When you get to the garden, take some time to read about our beautiful local essential oils. Some of them will be growing in this space.
The main video is at the bottom of the page. A brief appearance by avatar Albert Einstein will be in the Labrador Tea section. There is also a tiny summary video on Deep Dives and Transformations at the end of the page. Here is the link to your Scent Impressions Sheet- https://www.northernstarcourses.com/lesson/f-the-scent-impressions-sheet/
You can download your journal at the end of the page.
Local and Unusual Essential Oils
The plants listed below and discussed in the video are local to Alberta, Canada’s boreal forest. Enjoy a tour of our plants, but also be sure to find out which aromatic plants grow in your area. Post some of your favourite local essential oils onto our Facebook forum to share with your peers.
The following write-up is from books by Robert Rogers, with research from many authors. The cautions for the individual essential oils are not all known. For safety standards, do not use any of these essential oils during pregnancy or with children under 10. Please do not take them internally, as some may be toxic. Do not use with epilepsy or asthma. Use only in small quantities, up to 2%, diluted, externally.
AMBER
(Oleum succinum)-refined
Amber essential oil is produced by (dry) distillation of the odourless, fossil resin. Amber may come from various trees and is the fossilized resin of these trees, often pine or spruce. The resin pieces are unfit for making amber jewelry, and the dust yields are used for making amber oil. The resulting crude Amber oil is a dark brown, clear oil with a distinctly smoky, tar-like, resinous and leathery fragrance.
The dry distilled amber yields 60-65% amber varnish, 15-20% oil and 2% distilled acids. Rectified amber oil is made by combining one pint of amber with six pints of water and distilling this brew until “4 pints have passed with oil into a receiver, then separating the oil from the water.
The rectified Amber oil is the steam distillation of the crude amber oil, yielding a yellowish, clear oil.
Also known as oleum succinum, or oil of amber of Venice, this distilled product was used from the 15th to 17th century by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Rembrandt to give their paintings an everlasting varnish. Mediums based on oil of amber were applied to violins and other bowed musical instruments.
Historical, Medicinal Uses:
Amber oil was traditionally used for afflictions of the central nervous system, brain, memory, spine disorders, nervous stomach and endocrine ailments.
King notes it is a “stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic and has been employed with benefit in amenorrhea, hysteria, dysmenorrheal, tetanus, epilepsy, pertussis, infantile convulsions and various other spasmodic affections…in the latter affliction it should be rubbed along the spine either alone or combined with an equal part of laudanum and three or four parts of olive oil.”
Perfumery:
Amber is a base note with a mid-range odour intensity. Amber resin combines well with bergamot, jasmine, labdanum, and rose. It is combined with other oils to create a leather base for men’s aftershave and colognes. Rectified amber oil is camphor-like and reminiscent of freshly distilled fir and spruce needle oils.
Research:
Anti-inflammatory activities of amber extract in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages:
Summary: This research explored the anti-inflammatory properties of amber extract on macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide. The extract reduced levels of reactive oxygen species and inflammatory cytokines, indicating its potential as a treatment for inflammatory diseases.
Citation: Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Takeda, R., Okazaki, K., Sekita, M., & Sakamoto, K. (2021). Anti-inflammatory activities of amber extract in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 141, 111854. Read more.
Please be aware that this is not to be taken internally. Do not use it if you are sensitive to the coniferae family. Please do not use it with pregnant women or children under the age of 5.
Ode to Amber- Student Project by Lynda Hughes
Amber is often considered a gemstone and a colour; the glowing warm amber is not a stone but a fossilized resin from ancient evergreen trees (like pine). The oldest amber discovered on Earth is about 320 million years old. Imagine the potent energy this amber contains!
The most apparent quality of amber is its old (ancient!) energy. With it comes the accumulated wisdom of the earth and its natural kingdom.
Most amber is from pine trees or other conifers, though it can come from a variety of trees. However, most amber is from an extinct species because the resin was exuded so long ago.
Pinus succinifera, from which Crude Amber Resin is obtained, is a large and now-extinct pine tree from which many modern trees owe their descendants.
Heated above 200 °C, amber resin decomposes, yielding an oil of amber
It is believed that amber:
Balances emotions
Attracts good luck
Eliminates fears
Relieves a headache
Clears the mind
Dissolves negative energy
Helps develop patience and wisdom
1. Boost Health
Amber oil has antibacterial properties and may help to boost the immune system. Since this oil blends well with other antibacterial oils, such as sandalwood, it can help prevent infections if applied topically within a carrier oil. It may also help clear the lungs as an expectorant. Pairing amber oil with other oils, such as eucalyptus, may help ease the symptoms of lung infections.
Amber can be diffused directly into the air and paired with frankincense, another resin-based oil. Add a few drops of amber to the water and breathe when you feel chest congestion.
2. Ease Depression and Anxiety
Essential oils can be a complementary treatment for anxiety and depression. These conditions may be caused by inflammation in the brain, which in turn causes the brain to either not produce or process the hormones needed for proper mood regulation. Amber oil has anti-inflammatory properties that reduce the body’s reaction in the brain and allow for relaxation and focus.
Diffuse amber oil with lavender to have a truly relaxing experience and help manage the symptoms of depression and anxiety.
3. Increase Libido
The substances found in amber have various effects on two different areas, which may affect libido. One area is anxiety, which impacts performance by increasing nervousness and blood flow. Amber essential oil can help increase libido by affecting circulation and anxiety symptoms.
Use amber as an addition to massage oil and revel in an intimate massage with your partner. This oil should also mix well with ylang-ylang, which has also been proven to help relax and arouse.
4. Home Deodorizer
Many elements in the air can create unpleasant odours in our homes (like in nursing homes), and essential oils can be a healthy way to deodorize without spraying chemicals into the air, which may affect our bodies in other ways. Some moulds and bacteria survive in the air, giving rise to pervasive odours and even causing respiratory irritation.
Amber essential oil has antibacterial properties that kill mould and bacteria in the air, helping to freshen the air. Since amber oil blends well with many other oils, this benefit can be paired with other oils, such as orange or lemon. Diffusing this oil in your home should improve the aroma and even alleviate some breathing issues.
5. Reduce Pain and Inflammation
Our bodies are exposed to stress daily and react with various forms of inflammation. Pain is often a symptom of inflammation, and once inflammation is treated, the pain is also diminished. One of the many elements of amber oil is sesquiterpenes, substances shown to reduce inflammation.
Applying amber oil with a mix of peppermint and turmeric may ease arthritic joints and temporarily stop the pain of wounds.
6. Amber Essential Oil Increases Blood Circulation
When you don’t have good circulation, you may notice that your extremities, like your hands and feet, are routinely cold. This means you’re not getting enough blood flow to and from these areas, and amber essential oil can help. This oil has stimulant properties that encourage excellent oxygenation and improved blood flow. In turn, this improves your overall circulation.
Many people commonly use this oil topically, adding two or three drops to the skin on their extremities and rubbing it in. The oil will soak through your skin and encourage good blood flow.
Amber Resin Oil Uses and Benefits / Suggestions & Blends
Amber resin oil blends well with orange, frankincense, and lemon.
Dilute with a carrier oil for direct skin contact.
For massage, amber resin oil can be mixed with a carrier oil and massaged into the skin.
Mix a few drops of amber resin oil into hot water for a steam bath.
Add two drops of amber and lavender essential oils into a diffuser for relaxation.
Mix a few drops of amber with benzoin as the base for perfume. Add two drops of vanilla.
Amber Video- Student Project, Tanya Wells
AMORPHA
CONSTITUENTS- A. fruticosa fruit- gamma amorphene, ar-curcumene (12-19%), delta cadinene (13-18%), gamma-cadinene (8-11%), beta caryophyllene (4-12%) and gamma-muurolene (16%) have been identified. Stoyanova A et al., J Ess Oil Bearing Plants 2003 6(3):195-197. leaf- cadinene, and amorphene, a sesquiterpene.
The fruit yields 0.75-0.85% essential oil from the fresh or dried, while the leaf gives 0.05-0.08% light yellow oil with a slightly bitter taste.
Uses:
The essential oil is very effective against various plant pests and fungi.
Work at the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station examined the insecticidal properties of Amorpha oil. Tests on 29 species of insects and mites showed that amorpha was repellent to house flies and horn flies for more than 12 hours when sprayed on cattle. Other insects, including chinch bugs, cotton aphids, pea aphids, chrysanthemum aphids, and spotted cucumber beetles, are susceptible to plant extracts and oils.
How might you use Amorpha in a scent blend?
The leaf oil has an unusual scent, like a lemon/cumin cross, that lends itself to unusual perfume possibilities.
Research:
Essential Oil of Amorpha fruticosa L.:
Summary: This study analyzed the essential oils from the flowers, leaves, and fruits of Amorpha fruticosa L. The major components of the flower oil were α-eudesmol and β-eudesmol, while the leaf oil contained α-eudesmol, (E)-β-ocimene, and α-pinene. The ripe fruit oil was dominated by α-pinene and myrcene.
Citation: Lis, A., & Góra, J. (2001). Essential Oil of Amorpha fruticosa L. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 13(3), 340-342. Read more.
Cautions: Do not take internally. Please do not use it with pregnant women, while breastfeeding, or with children under the age of 5.
ANISE HYSSOP
(Agastache foeniculum)
CONSTITUENTS- methyl chavicol (2-85%), germacrene D (13-20%), anisaldehyde, Methone, p-methoxy cinnamaldehyde, limonene (0-48%), cadinene, pulegone, bornyl acetate, linalool, (E)-ocimene (8-9%) and 50 other constituents. Anise hyssop sometimes contains spathulenol; in plants low in methyl chavicol, it tends to be high (10-49%).
Significant aromatic variation is found within the species. Methyl chavicol is highly prized for use, as noted above. One variety containing 29% gamma cadinene, 16% alpha cadinol, 12% beta caryophyllene, and 11% spathulenol is more woody and floral. The oil is more balsamic when spathulenol is present at 50% with 18% bornyl acetate. Another variation is 37% iso menthone, 23% pulegone and 2% estragole, and, as expected, has a peppermint, pennyroyal, and tarragon scent.
Work at Brooks CDC in 1990 found an essential oil yield of 343.7 litres per hectare or 0.66%.
Plants grown in northern Alberta exhibit up to 20% caryophyllene oxide content and less than 5% carvone.
The essential oil content of the leaf is approximately 0.07-2.45% and slightly higher in the flowers (0.1- 3.0%).
Uses:
Properties of the oil are anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-infectious, and nervine.
The oil is used medicinally for gastritis, hepatitis, stomach and intestinal cramping, nerve pain, anxiety, congestive prostate inflammation, varicose veins and other venous circulatory disturbances and polyarthritis.
The essential oil is not commercially available on the prairies but from producers in Oregon.
Methyl chavicol is in demand from many industries; however, marketing the fractionated product would not be a problem. It is used to manufacture perfumes, liqueurs, foods and root beer.
It can be chemically modified to anethole and anisaldehyde and used in colour photography, soaps, dentifrices, etc.
The recommended harvest is during the bud formation.
Anise hyssop has a balsamic odour.
HYDROSOL
Anise Hyssop water is very refreshing to overheated skin. Dilute to 2% and place it into a spritzer bottle for use during hot weather. The hydrosol may be helpful for those suffering from heatstroke or sunburn.
Research:
Influence of Drying, Storage and Distillation Times on Essential Oil Yield and Composition of Anise Hyssop:
Summary: This study examined the effects of different drying methods and storage and distillation periods on the essential oil content and composition of Agastache foeniculum. The oil content was highest in plant material dried at room temperature and was mainly composed of methyl chavicol and limonene.
Citation: Mahmoodi Sourestani, M., Malekzadeh, M., & Tava, A. (2014). Influence of drying, storage and distillation times on essential oil yield and composition of anise hyssop. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 26(2), 177-184. Read more.
Phytochemical, Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antioxidant Properties of Agastache foeniculum Essential Oil:
Summary: This study evaluated the antioxidant activity of extracts from A. foeniculum and their antimicrobial activity against various pathogens. It highlighted the essential oil’s efficacy against bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and fungi such as Aspergillus niger, showcasing its potential as a natural preservative.
Citation: Mohammad, H., Ali, E., Abbas, H., Asma, A., Majid, A., Toktam, S., & Zahra, A. (2017). Phytochemical, antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant properties of Agastache foeniculum essential oil. Journal of Chemical Health Risks, 7(1), 95-104. Read more.
Cautions: Do not take internally. Please do not use it with pregnant women, during breastfeeding, or with children under the age of 5. May cause convulsions. Do not use with epilepsy.
KING BOLETE
(Boletus edulis)
ABSOLUTE
The edible Boletus edulis owes its pleasant smell to a volatile oil. Alcohol extraction of the dried fungi yields .056% dark brown oil, which melts at 34° C.
Although produced for the culinary market, the oil does present some interesting notes for the aromatherapy, brewing and perfume industries.
CALAMUS (Acorus americanus)
Note this is a very different essential oil than East Asian Calamus, which contains up to 80% alpha and beta-asorone, and is more toxic.
ESSENTIAL OIL:
CONSTITUENTS– A. americanus- shyobunone (10%), isoshyobunone (8-13%), beta-farnesene, methyl eugenol, calamenen (4%), beta sesquiphellandrene (3%), pre-isocalamenediol (7-18%), calamenol (5%), cadinol, linalool, calamone, azulene, camphor, acolamone, pinene, acorone (11%), acorenone (14-18%), cryptoacorone (7.5%) asaraldehyde and cineole among 243 recorded volatile components. Up to 26% acorone may also be present in the dried roots. The aldehyde with characteristic odour is (Z, Z)-4,7-decadienal (C10H16O). Its concentration in the oil is 500 ppm, and the odour threshold value is 4.2 ppb. The concentration is about 100,000 times its odour threshold, indicating the importance of this compound to overall odour composition.
Steam distillation of the fresh root yields a yellow volatile oil (up to 6%) that is heavy, earthy, and slightly sweet with bitter undertones. Some writers describe it as resembling dried milk and sweet leather compared to the fragrance of a milk truck or a shoe repair shop by authors like Arctander.
The oil from fresh rhizomes is finer and more soluble in weak alcohol. In my distillations, at 40% moisture, the yield is about 0.7%. The fresh rhizome oil of asarone-free calamus is tough to find on the world market and has a demand.
The outer rhizome peel contains the most essential oil and should not be peeled for distillation.
Oil from the leaves is a straw-yellow camphoraceous product containing butyric and oenanthylic acids as esters. Yield is about 0.5-1% from leaves.
Calamus oil was used in the ointment given to Moses, which contained myrrh, cinnamon, and cassia in olive oil.
Its mind-altering effects are used for meditation and psychic development and in perfume blends for smooth middle notes. The North American fragrance market uses over $30 million of imported oils annually.
Beta-asarone is low or undetectable in the diploid cytotype North American oil. Keller et al, Planta Medica 1983 47:2.
Health Benefits:
Calamus oil can be used for congested kidneys and bladder infections. It is also suggested for bronchitis and asthmatic complaints where antibacterial and antispasmodic properties are needed.
Isoasarone-free oil from the Canadian calamus exhibits an anti-spasmodic effect, while oils from the Indian Calamus, containing up to 96% isoasarone, have no spasmolytic effect.
According to studies by Locock, Can Pharm Journal 1987 120, the essential oil of the diploid calamus has an anti-spasmodic action that is not found in the other varieties.
Either use the calamus oil to make a steam bath or mix it with vegetable oil and rub it into the chest to achieve this calming effect. Massages relax tense and sore muscles, and tired feet and varicose veins feel rejuvenated and toned.
To relieve menopausal hot flashes in a footbath, use calamus oil and dispersant in hot water or a few drops of oil in a hot bath. Never use it if you are pregnant or breastfeeding.
Although no studies have been conducted on the olfactory effect of our native diploid essential oil, work by Koo et al., Biol Pharm Bull 2003 26:7, looked at the impact of fragrance inhalation of A. gramineus root essential oil. They noted a significant sedative and anticonvulsant effect and increased GABA levels in the brain.
The scent of the calamus prolonged sleeping time in a dose-dependent manner. Studies on our native species would be helpful.
Calamus oil is mixed in silverweed tincture as a mouthwash for gingivitis.
It is a digestive and biliary stimulant, useful in anorexia, gas pains, and digestive spasms. The oil clears phlegm in the gastrointestinal tract and calms nervous problems such as vertigo and tension headaches. It will also assist those with intermittent fevers and is mildly vermifuge.
It has been noted that considerable amounts of heat are given off during flowering. The flowers could be experimentally distilled and investigated further.
Studies in the Czech Republic found that the essential oil content was higher in the spring (0.8-2.6%) than in the fall (1.0-1.8%).
Although it may not be relevant to North America, the same researchers found a close negative relationship between essential oil content, the concentration of calcium in the water, and the pH of the substrate.
Stahl et al., Planta Med 47:2, found that CO2 extraction retained more bitter and sesquiterpene components.
Work in Russia found rhizomes and roots dried in the sun yielded 10% and 30% less essential oil than plant material dried in the shade.
Calamus root oil is often combined with catnip oil and beaver castor as a muskrat lure.
Bertea et al.’s work, Phytochemistry 2005 66:5, developed an excellent sequence analysis to distinguish the diploid type from others.
This would be useful to industry and government in helping our native root take its rightful place as a valuable medicinal herb. Garneau FX et al.’s study at LASEVE at the University of Quebec (Chicoutimi) is complete.
Suzanne Catty writes, “Calamus is specific for the liver and can be used with Greenland moss (Labrador Tea) in topical compresses and poultices for liver infections, dysfunction, and hepatitis. French aromatherapy experiments by Dominique Baudoux with topical and internal use of these two essential oils have yielded promising results in treating liver tumours and cancers, and the hydrosols are worth further exploration.”
The supercritical carbon dioxide extraction yields oil containing acorone and isoacorone (37%), acoragermacrone (12%), acorenone (6%), and shyobunone isomers (2%). Acoragermacrone usually degrades to shyobunone in steam distillation.
HYDROSOL
The dried Canadian calamus root hydrosol is masculine and earthy, while the fresh root is similar but even greener. I like both, but many people find it too intense. The pH is 4.6.
Suzanne Catty says, “The hydrosol makes a gently astringent aftershave on its own or combined with sandalwood, cedarwood or bay laurel.
It has some benefits for various digestive problems concerning the liver, stomach, and pancreas and is worthy of further research.
Research:
Inhibitory effects of the fragrance inhalation of essential oil from Acorus gramineus on the central nervous system:
Summary: This study investigates the effects of Acorus gramineus essential oil on the central nervous system, highlighting its potential sedative and anticonvulsive properties. These effects are believed to be mediated through the enhancement of GABA levels in the brain.
Citation: Byung-Soo Koo, Kyung-Su Park, J. Ha, Jong Hee Park, Jae-Chul Lim, Dong-Ung Lee (2003). Inhibitory effects of the fragrance inhalation of essential oil from Acorus gramineus on the central nervous system. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 26(7), 978-982. Read more.
Cautions: Do not use if you are pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under the age of 10. Please do not take it internally. Some of the toxicology remains unknown.
CANADA FLEABANE (Erigeron canadensis)
ESSENTIAL OIL
CONSTITUENTS- E. canadensis-cumin aldehyde, limonene, methyl octanoates, beta pinenes, sesquiterpenes, polyacetyl esters, matricaria esters (up to 30%), lachnophylum ester, d-limonene, d’pentene, delta-l-terpineol, p-cymene, camphene, mycrene, germacrene, alpha-cis-bergamots, beta-trans-farnesene, and cuminaldehydes. Over 47 volatile components have been identified, of which 91% are terpenoids.
The root contains the above and a de-hydro-matricaria ester (C11H8O2).
European research found 18 compounds with 76% limonene, 5.8% cis santalene, 3.8% delta three carene, and 3.62% beta mycrene.
The steam-distilled oil from the entire flowering Canada Fleabane is herbaceous and ethereal, with a sweet cumin amber-like undertone. On dilution, the oil resembles neroli.
It varies from a pale yellow-green to dark yellow and produces 0.33-0.66% from the fresh leaf and 0.2-1.7% from the dried. The specific gravity is 0.8464.
It is one of the most diffusive stimulants in the plant kingdom. It is used in perfumery to modify the top notes of fern and cypress-type blends and add unusual nuances.
The food and flavour industry uses it in candy, ice cream, and soft drinks at 0.2-5 ppm.
The oil will arrest most uterine hemorrhage with two or three drops on a sugar cube. In an emergency, this can be repeated 3-4 times every fifteen minutes.
The oil is excellent for a prolapse of the intestine, with resultant gas and bloating. Old herbals recommended one dram of the oil mixed with egg yolk and milk for various intestinal complaints.
The oil is highly prized in France, where medical aromatherapists use it for pancreatic and hepatic stimulation. It is also a potent anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic and coronary dilator.
It has been used to stimulate slow puberty in young women. The essential oil contains human growth hormones, and it is one of the very few plants containing this unique compound.
The oil has been used to treat gonorrhea, bladder complaints, lung infections, intestinal parasites, and cystic pimples. It clears excessive protein from the urine and reduces kidney inflammation.
It reduces inflamed hemorrhoids when diluted with a carrier oil such as coconut and made into suppositories.
Eclectic practitioners dissolved one dram of oil into an ounce of pure alcohol. They employed this as an application to inflamed and enlarged tonsils or other inflammations of the throat.
Topical application may be helpful for middle ear infections. Please do not put it in the ear canal; massage it straight into adjacent areas.
The essential oil was official in the US Pharmacopoeia from 1863 to 1916 and was used to accelerate uterine contractions immediately before childbirth, suggesting oxytocic activity.
In China, essential oil is given to prevent allergic diarrhea in children due to ingesting cow milk.
The oil is being researched for treating hypertension in veterinary medicine. It inhibits the growth of mould.
HYDROSOL
Fleabane hydrosol is weedy and unpleasant to both smell and taste. The pH is 3.9, indicating good shelf stability.
Suzanne Catty has trialled it for blackflies and mosquitoes with some success.
She suggests that hydrosol is antibacterial, digestive and diuretic for kidney infections.
It is being researched for treating hypertension in veterinary medicine, according to Shirley and Len Price.
Fleabane stimulates circulation and helps joints. It is also helpful for uterine and nasal hemorrhages. VIAUD
Research:
The Essential Oil of Erigeron canadensis L.:
Summary: Analyzed the essential oil from Erigeron canadensis grown in west Japan, identifying 47 volatile components, with the main constituents being limonene (31.2%), camphene (14.2%), and germacrene D (11.3%).
Citation: Miyazawa, M., Yamamoto, K., & Kameoka, H. (1992). The Essential Oil of Erigeron canadensis L. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 4(3), 227-230. Read more.
Cytotoxic Effect of the Essential oils from Erigeron Canadensis L. on Human Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells in Vitro:
Summary: Examined the components of E. canadensis essential oils and their effects on normal liver cells and human cervical cancer cells. Found that the oils had 21 chemical components, primarily limonene, and demonstrated significant cytotoxic effects on HeLa cells while being less toxic to normal cells.
Citation: Si, C., Ou, Y., Ma, D., Hei, L., Wang, X., Du, R., Yang, H., Liao, Y., & Zhao, J. (2022). Cytotoxic Effect of the Essential oils from Erigeron Canadensis L. on Human Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells in Vitro. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 19. Read more.
Composition and in vitro Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils of Erigeron canadensis and Myrtus communis from France:
Summary: The authors investigated the antifungal activity of essential oils from E. canadensis and Myrtus communis against several phytopathogenic fungi. Found weak fungicidal activity of E. canadensis oil except against Colletotrichum lindemuthianum.
Citation: Curini, M., Bianchi, A., Epifano, F., Bruni, R., Torta, L., & Zambonelli, A. (2003). Composition and in vitro Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils of Erigeron canadensis and Myrtus communis from France. Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 39(3), 191-194. Read more.
Cautions: Oxidized oils can cause skin sensitization. Avoid old or oxidized oils, as they may cause skin reactions (Tisserand and Young, pg. 286). There’s no internal use.
Canada Fleabane- Student Project- Story by Tanya Mackie
Bane of My Existence
The medicine woman closed the door and leaned heavily on her staff. The child was dying. Crestfallen, she slowly stumped into the car and began driving home. She couldn’t get the image of that poor child out of her sight. The poor thing was gasping for breath, vomiting, and diarrhea, and had been struggling for days now and not getting any better if anything worse. The doctors were baffled and started to blame the parents for being vegans because they, as doctors, had failed and couldn’t own up to their limitations. The medicine woman slowly shook her head. This wasn’t good. Something was missing. She knew it in her bones. She couldn’t pinpoint it. As she drove, a hawk swooped down in front of her, riding the current in front of her, before heading off in the distance. Messages were coming. It was time to go inward and get them.
Upon arriving home, she went to her inner sanctum and called in her guides, grandmothers, grandfathers, fairies, and animal spirits of the four directions. She smiled when she got to the South. Her polar bear was the protector of that corner, but a polar bear in the South… how backwards. But the South held the healer medicine, and she was always grateful for the robust and powerful bear medicine assisting her. He slowly lumbered in, plopping down in place. Once all were in, she settled herself in the center, asked for guidance from Spirit and went to the lower realms to find the medicine she needed.
She was immediately floating above with the eagle, who had taken her down to a lush green pasture where a cow was grazing in the field. She landed beside the cow and gently stroked it as it ate, acknowledging its presence. As she suspected, cow 
Energies were involved. The child wasn’t being nourished, but what would nourish her? She looked down and saw the cow wasn’t eating grass. It was an entire field of tiny fir-like trees, but fir would be too intense for such a young child. As she thought this, the tops quickly grew up and outwards and blossomed with tiny bell-like flowers. “Oh, Canadian Fleabane, my old friend. I should have recognized you!” she said and sat down to greet the plant. She was enveloped with an ethereal, sweet cumin, amber gold smell as she did. Yes, your essential oil has helped me relieve my arthritis. So it is your essential oil that is to be of help to me, she mused. It’s not surprising, given how well you helped the mother when she gave birth to the child. That was a rough labour in the middle of a snowstorm. She thought that only happened in the movies, ha! The poor woman took forever to give birth, and I had to use you to get the child born. Then she was hemorrhaging quite severely afterwards. It took three sugar cubes with a few drops of you to stop the bleeding. I was getting worried when I gave the third because, in the next 15 minutes, I was going to have to provide the fourth and final dose, and I wasn’t too sure what I would do after that. We were too snowed in to get her out. It seemed that the child was destined for a rough start. But Fleabane, you worry me again by showing up now. You are not for light causes. Prolapse of the intestine? But the child had no gas or bloating, and the light did not come down and shine. Whenever she hit the correct answer, a beam of light would shine down, affirming her knowledge, so she began to think of all Fleabane did. It helped pancreatic and hepatic stimulation, but although the digestive system was clearly in trouble, stimulating didn’t seem like the answer. It’s a powerful antispasmodic that would help the lungs breathe better, but still no light. Hesitantly, she asked about heart disease as it’s a coronary dilator, but thankfully no light shone. She ruminated through all its benefits: lung infections, intestinal parasites, kidney inflammation, tonsillitis and throat inflammation. She even stroked her ear at one point and thought of how it helped the little boy with the middle ear infection, and later, as a teenager, it helped with his cystic pimples. Yes, when fleabane showed up, it would help out a few times in one’s life.
Let’s hope that boy doesn’t get too randy and need it for gonorrhea later on. The fleabane shot up at that. Yup, I’ve gotten off track, the medicine woman realized and brought herself back, but she was running out of ideas. The fleabane grew even taller before her. Something about growing, eh? Well, fleabane does help with retarded puberty in girls, but the child was way too young for that. Then the fleabane shrunk down and got more withered and old-looking than it already was. Yes, the girl was failing to thrive, but why? As the medicine woman implored Spirit for help, the cow came over and licked the side of her face. “Eww, gross!” she said, startled and wiped the slime from the side of her face. The light shone down, and everything clicked.
She quickly exited the lower realms and returned to the real world. She grabbed her fleabane and keys and rushed back to the child’s house. Rapping on the door, she waited gleefully. If she were right, the child wouldn’t die. The 
Exhausted, Mom opened the door curiously, wondering why she was back so soon. As she walked in, the medicine woman blurted out, “I must ask and answer truthfully: Have you been giving your child cow’s milk?” The mom’s eyes widened, and she sheepishly answered, “Yes. We didn’t want our child to be on a strict vegan diet while she was still growing.”
“Well, that’s actually what caused all these problems,” the medicine woman said confidently. She’s allergic to cow’s milk. It explains everything: shallow breathing, vomiting, diarrhea. Stop the milk. Give her a couple of drops of this in a carrier oil and rub it on her belly to reduce the inflammation and histamine reaction, and she’ll be right as rain.”
“Conyza canadensis?” the mom reads questioningly.
“Oh, that’s Latin,” the medicine woman waves dismissively, “It’s good old Canadian Fleabane.”
The mom holds the essential oil, baffled, “This will work?”
“Yes, Fleabane is used to prevent allergic reactions to cow’s milk, so it will help, and once the milk is stopped, all will be well.”
“Anything I should watch out for?” the mom asks, still stunned.
“Nope. Fleabane has no contraindications. It can be sensitizing, so skin-test it first, especially since your daughter has an allergic reaction.” The medicine woman reaches out and clasps the mom’s hands, looks her directly in the eyes, and smiles, saying, “She’s going to be alright.”
“She’s going to be alright!” the mom cries with relief as it finally sinks in.
GOLDENROD (Solidago canadensis)
CONSTITUENTS- S. canadensis– curlone (23.5%), germacrene D (8-40%), gamma2-cadinene, non-1-ene (14-36%), methyl chavicol, mycrene, borneol, bornyl acetate (4-8%), cadinene, limonene (2-11%), sabinene (6-17%) beta-phelladrene (1-2%), alpha pinene (3-8%), and minor amounts of spathulenol, alpha cadinol, cadinenes, p-cymene, and (E)-beta-ocimene.
Hydrodistillation of the green parts also yielded two sesquiterpenes, 6-epi-beta cubebene and 6-epi-alpha cubebene. Distillation in China found 26.9% beta cubebene.
Yields can vary with the stage of development. In July, before flowering, about 0.38%; in mid-August (full bloom) 1.4-1.5%); end of flowering (1.5-1.9%). The flower’s average yield is 1.7%, leaves 0.9% and stems 0.2%.
Root oil yields about 0.5% oil containing 20% thymol, 6.26% alpha copaene, and 5.5% carvacrol.
Goldenrod essential oil (S. canadensis) is steam distilled from the flowers, yielding 0.5-2%. It is yellow-orange with a very aromatic, pleasant odour.
It is anti-inflammatory, with a beneficial effect on the solar and cardiac plexus.
Goldenrod is a potent diuretic that lowers elevated blood pressure and stimulates liver function. It is indicated when the heart is excited, with a weak or irregular pulse, and for those of nervous, excitable dispositions.
It promotes expectoration in bronchitis and bronchial asthma.
Goldenrod oil could be used in chewing gum and candies and has been suggested as applicable in insecticides and deodorants.
Aerial parts of essential oil show activity against gram-positive bacteria, especially B. subtilis. The oil has central and peripheral analgesic activity but no sedative or muscle-relaxing properties. The authors suggest in their in vivo study that the results justify the traditional use of this plant for rheumatoid arthritis. Mishra D et al., J Pharm Res 2011 4:1 63-66.
The essential oil shows potential cytotoxic activity against various human liver, breast and cervix carcinomas. El-Sherei M et al., J Ess Oil Bearing Plants 2014 7(5).
The root essential oil shows activity against Streptococcus faecalis, E. coli and Candida albicans. Mishra et al., J Basic & Chin Pharmacy 2010 1:3.
The essential oil has been tested for in vitro cytotoxicity and shows mild activity against A-549, MDA-MB435 and HepG2 cancer cell lines. Huang B et al., J Ess Oil Bearing Plants 2012 15(4):667-671.
DOSE- Combine with a carrier oil like canola or walnut and rub into affected areas in 5-10% dilutions. Internally combine one ml of oil with eight ml of alcohol. Take 15 drops in water for bronchial asthma, etc.
HYDROSOLS
Distilled water from various Goldenrod species can be taken internally to promote urination and increase the excretion of sand gravel and mucous from the kidneys and bladder. It also makes an acceptable water rinse or gargle for sore gums and mouth injuries.
According to Suzanne Catty, Goldenrod (S. canadensis) has a weedy odour like wet hay. The taste is dry, but when diluted, it is hardly noticeable.
It has a pH of 4.1-4.3 and is very stable. Catty considers hydrosol strongly anti-inflammatory and moderately anti-spasmodic, and it is helpful for sore muscles, stiff necks, tendonitis, and repetitive motion injuries.
Use as a compress for rheumatic pain, varicose veins, and broken capillaries.
Over time, it may help dissolve kidney stones. It may also be helpful as a before—or after-workout rub. According to Catty, Goldenrod hydrosol will lower blood pressure, so hypotensive individuals should not use it internally.
The distilled water of this herb will promote urine, drive out sand, foul matter, and stones from the kidneys and bladder, and prove helpful in treating bloody flux if taken in 3-4 loth doses often. For injuries to the mouth, it may also be administered effectively as a gargle. SAUER
Research:
Chemical Composition and Cytotoxic Activities of the Essential Oil from the Inflorescences of Solidago canadensis L., an Invasive Weed in Southeastern China:
Summary: The study analyzed the essential oil from the inflorescences of Solidago canadensis, identifying 53 compounds with β-cubebene, α-pinene, D-limonene, β-pinene, and bornyl acetate as the main components. The essential oil exhibited mild cytotoxic activity against various human tumour cells.
Citation: Baokang Huang, Y. Lei, L. Qin, Juan Liu (2012). Chemical Composition and Cytotoxic Activities of the Essential Oil from the Inflorescences of Solidago canadensis L., an Invasive Weed in Southeastern China. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 15, 667-671. Read more.
Chemical Composition and Antiproliferative Effect of Essential Oils of Four Solidago Species (S. canadensis, S. gigantea, S. virgaurea and S.×niederederi):
Summary: This research explored the chemical compositions and antiproliferative effects of essential oils from various Solidago species on human tumour cell lines. The oils mainly contained sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes, with noted antiproliferative activity, particularly from S. canadensis.
Citation: J. G. Nkuimi Wandjou, L. Quassinti, Z. Gudžinskas, D. U. Nagy, K. Cianfaglione, M. Bramucci, F. Maggi (2020). Chemical Composition and Antiproliferative Effect of Essential Oils of Four Solidago Species. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 17. Read more.
Effect of Seasonal Variation on the Composition of the Essential Oil of Solidago canadensis Cultivated in Egypt:
Summary: The study evaluated how seasonal variations affect the essential oil composition of Solidago canadensis. Notable compounds included germacrene D, α-pinene, γ-cadinene, myrecene, and limonene, with seasonal changes affecting their concentrations.
Citation: M. El-Sherei, A. Khaleel, A. A. Motaal, Passent Abd-Elbaki (2014). Effect of Seasonal Variation on the Composition of the Essential Oil of Solidago canadensis Cultivated in Egypt. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 17, 891-898. Read more.
Cautions: No information was found for goldenrod oil, but it contains no known carcinogens. Tisserand and Young pg. 297 Do not use if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under 5. Please do not use it internally.
Poem on Solidago by Tanya Mackie- Student Project
Deva 2 Poem[2]
GOTU KOLA
(Centella asiatica)
Gotu Kola leaves and stems have been steam distilled to yield an oil with 41 identified compounds. Eighty percent are sesquiterpenes, including 26.8% beta-caryophyllene, 33% alpha humulene, and 10% germacrene D.
The essential oil is available but rarely found commercially. It is often found in a dilute form mixed with an almond carrier oil.
The oil, as 10% dilution, is beneficial externally in cases of scleroderma.
Cautions: Do not use if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under the age of 5. Please do not use it internally. Avoid it with liver disease and hepatitis. Do not use up to 2 weeks before surgery.
GUAIAC WOOD
(Bulnesia sarmientoi)
The wood was formerly used for gout, rheumatic arthritis, and sexually transmitted diseases. The hardwood tree grows up to three meters in height in Argentina and Paraguay.
It is an adulterant for Bulgarian rose oil due to its tea rose-like scent.
Adulteration is easily detected by the change in congealing point and needle-like crystals of guaiol when cooled. It also alters the specific gravity.
It is produced from wood or sawdust and has a rose fragrance with a smoky undertone. Because of its antioxidant benefits, it is used in soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, and as a food additive.
The oil is composed of 43-72% guaiol and bulnesol, bulnesene, guaiene, patchoulene, guaioxide, etc.
It is anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic and laxative. In French aromatherapy, it is used for varicose veins and congested hemorrhoids, including pain relief and swelling. It is combined with cypress and laurel leaf essential oils for lymphatic stagnation.
Cautions: None known-Tisserand and Young pg. 299
LABRADOR TEA
(Rhododendron groenlandicum)
CONSTITUENTS- R. groenlandicum– monoterpenes including pinene, sabinene, limonene and terpinene), sesquiterpenes (selinene, ledene and selinadiene), ledol, borneol, lepalox, palustrol, lepaxonebutyric acetate, cyclocolorenone, myrtenal aldehyde and germacrone. Flowering tops yield about 1.2%, while non-flowering 0.35%.
High germacrone levels (62%) occur before buds open, high sabinene levels (22%) during flowering, and high limonene levels (24%) in the flowers only.
Steam-distilled essential oil (yield 0.3-2.5%) is very valuable, both to the medical practitioner and the producer.
Young shoots yield three to four times the amount of precious oil and more significant amounts of terpenoids than older plants. Palustrol is higher in the aged leaves than in the young shoots. This wide variation is observed in regions, seasons, and weather conditions.
Work in Russia suggests maximum yields are found during seed ripening in August and September.
Ledum essential oil has a bitter yet pleasant coriander-like fragrance with hints of mint and a persistent green note.
The oil commands nearly $2000 per litre, more than the rare and increasingly difficult-to-obtain true sandalwood, yet it is a valuable renewable resource.
Reddish-yellow oil is used for kidney disorders and has been found clinically effective in dialysis patients and those awaiting a kidney transplant.
It relieves the pain and inflammation that accompanies prostate enlargement, even with infection present. It plays a minor role in liver sluggishness and viral hepatitis.
It can be used internally and externally for inflammation of the adenoids, tonsils and other lymphatic congestion.
Studies conducted by Belousov et al., Khimiko Farm 1989 23 in the former USSR, showed Labrador tea possessed antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and others.
The oil cake leftover from steam distillation can be made into a tincture product.
Nervous energy, solar plexus spasms, and an overactive thyroid are calmed. Insomnia and heart palpitations that accompany these conditions are also relieved. When combined with black spruce essential oil, it may also balance a low thyroid condition.
Studies by Wagner et al., Planta Medica 1986 3, showed that Ledum leaf oil significantly inhibited prostaglandin and was helpful in inflammatory and rheumatic conditions.
Ledin, produced in Russia, contains 50 mg of ledol in a film-coated tablet. It is used for acute and chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and dry coughs.
Kurt Schnaubelt recommends the oil for liver and kidney detoxification, especially after an acute illness. He also uses the oil to counteract insomnia and allergies.
A few drops in a diffuser will help sensitive individuals create safer-feeling home environments. The essential oil is comparable to DEET in mosquito repellency. Leaf extracts in ethyl acetate showed 70% repellency. Jaenson TG et al., J Med Entomol 2006 43 113-19.
Germacrone was shown in studies to be the reason rabbits did not eat Labrador tea.
Ledol is a central nervous system stimulant that can cause convulsions and paralysis in high amounts. Studies in mice found that the oil demonstrated a dose-dependent reduction in motor activity, the ability to maintain balance, and increased sleep time when given with barbiturates or alcohol. MacDonald EJ & Airaksinen MM, Arzneipflanzenforschung July 1972.
Volatiles appear to degrade plastic bags in a novel, chemically oxidative way. Kiu, Z et al., Chin Sci Bulletin 2003 48 1718-21.
DOSE- 2 drops daily in water.
HYDROSOL
Labrador Tea hydrosol is very complex and potent. Its somewhat hot and spicy scent is reminiscent of bay rum with a cinnamon stick thrown in. The taste is, however, more camphoraceous and penetrating. It is very close to the scent of the fresh leaves but not the flowers.
It has a pH of 3.8 to 4.0, and although clear, the water has small icicle-like spikes that settle with time.
Labrador Tea Hydrosol-Video,
Note Einstein’s voice has been Americanized for easier listening.
The message is still of his essence :)
Suzanne Catty suggests its use with yarrow hydrosol to ease withdrawal from addictions such as tobacco and alcohol. I would recommend Calamus root and Licorice root waters as well. Ensure the water used to make the hydrosol is fresh and reliable.
She suggests trying one-half teaspoon of Labrador tea hydrosol in water just before bedtime for insomnia.
Veterinarians and CAM practitioners have used hydrosol successfully for Lyme disease in animals and humans.
Cautions: Avoid in young children, during pregnancy, and in people with epilepsy, following the same contraindications as the medicinal herb.
Labrador Tea Video- Anita Berger, Student Project
LENTISK/MASTIC
(Pistacia lentiscus)
A Lentisk is a small tree or shrub that produces oleoresin from the trunk. Incisions are made, and the liquid is collected.
A resinoid is produced by solvent from the oleoresin, or essential oil is distilled from the oleoresin and occasionally from leaves and branches.
It is comprised mainly of monoterpenes like pinene, myrcene, sabinene, and delta-3-carene.
It is antiseptic and anti-microbial and used for skin care, lice, ringworm, scabies, and wounds.
It relieves arthritic and rheumatic inflammation, respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, sinusitis, whooping cough, and urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis. French aromatherapists have used Lentisk to decongest the venous (varicosities) and lymphatic systems.
It also is used for prostatitis, both acute and chronic.
Internally, it is used for gastric ulcers and spasmodic colitis, but caution is advised.
Tisserand and Young pg. 349 mentions it may inhibit the proliferation and angiogenesis of leukemia.
It is also used in dentistry and high-class perfumes and liqueurs.
Cautions: It can cause skin sensitization. For leave-on products such as body lotions, use a concentration of 0.0004% (Tisserand and Young, 349).
LILY FLOWERED MAGNOLIA
(Magnolia liliiflora)
(M. quinquepeta)
STAR MAGNOLIA
(M. stellata)
CUCUMBER TREE
(M. acuminata L.)
ESSENTIAL OIL
The unopened flower buds contain about 3% essential oils, consisting of pinene, camphene, limonene, linalool, cineol, terpineol, methyl chavicol, citral, safrole, anethole, estragole, and eugenol.
The flower essential oil contains 52 compounds of 15.6% levoxine, 24% methyl cyclopropane, 5.3% 2-beta pinene, and 4% caryophyllene oxide.
The oil of lily-flowered magnolia has been shown to possess antifungal and antidermatophytic activity. Bajpai et al., Food Chem Tox 2009, July 25.
Cucumber Tree flowers contain volatile lactone chemicals.
Diana Beresford-Kroeger suggests the fragrant flowers produce lactone aerosols that are anti-carcinogenic, anti-malarial and anti-arrhythmic. “These volatile biochemicals act as pacemakers for the beating heart…the lactones are absorbed by the damp mucosal membranes lining the nose and sinuses. They dissolve and are then rapidly transported across barrier membranes into the body.
Others who benefit from the fragrance therapy of M. acuminata are the mentally challenged or people who suffer from depression or poor mental health. Quite often, these groups are on medications that can cause cardiac irregularities. The fragrant lactones help to stabilize such effects. The general calming effect of these fragrances on the sympathetic nervous system is also beneficial to these people.”
The flowers of M. grandiflora from the southeastern United States have been hydro-distilled and analyzed for essential oils.
Cyclocolorenone (up to 39.6%), bicyclogermacrene (1.2-25.2%), germacrene D (2.3-23.8%), isobornyl acetate (trace to 16%), methyl myristate (up to 15.3%) beta-pinene (3.3-14.6%), beta elemene (3.3-12.8%) (2Z, 6E)-farnesol (up to 15%) and (2E,6E)-farnesol (up to 12.5%) was found in blossoms of four different trees at different times of blossom maturation. Davé Purva C et al., J Ess Oil Bearing Plants 2012 15(5):694-702.
Cautions: Unknown- do not take internally, nor use if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under 5.
WILD BERGAMOT (Monarda fistulosa)
ESSENTIAL OIL
CONSTITUENTS—M. fistulosa-thymol (47-56%), p-cymene (6%), carvacrol(5-18%), alpha thujene, alpha pinene, mycrene (2%), oct-1-en-3-ol (1.6%), gamma-terpinene (13-16%), alpha terpinene (3-4%), and limonene (1%).
Oil yield is higher from fresh and wilted plants than from baled material, approximately 0.6-1.17%.
An essential oil from Monarda is produced in Alberta, near Bow Island. Several species of Monarda are grown, one rich in thymol and the other, Morden #3, nearly 95% geraniol. Both are hybrids of M. fistulosa var. methaefolia.
In work at Morden, Manitoba, a sweet-smelling native plant found near Spruce Woods Forest Reserve was crossed with M. didyma to produce more winter-hardy, disease-resistant hybrids. Five different hybrids were developed, each one rich in either geraniol (more than 92%), carvacrol (73.5%), linalool (67%), thymol ( 31%), or 1,8 cineole (22%).
Complete work by Marshall and Cora can be found in Can Journal of Botany 1972 50.
Thymol is valuable for its antiseptic and medicinal properties, and geraniol is helpful in the perfume and aromatherapy industry. Thymol oil is phenolic, slightly minty, and aggressive. It is 18-82% thymol, up to 29% para-cymene, up to 22% gamma-terpinene, up to 16% 1,8-cineole, and up to 10% alpha-terpinene.
The geraniol oil is pale yellow and sweet, balsamic, topped with a lavender-rose-like scent. Essential oil yield is 125-154 kg/hectare, based on approximately 4% dry weight yields. Work at CDC Brooks in 1989 showed dry plant yield in full bloom of 2998 kilograms per hectare, yielding 142 litres per hectare of oil.
Carvacrol is a valued antiseptic and antiviral component of essential oils. The market is currently dominated by imported oregano oil diluted in olive oil, but a market push with a dedicated Monarda strain could capture a share.
Two geraniol hybrids have been developed in Manitoba. Morden #3 is a triploid hybrid that can only be propagated asexually, while Morden #82 is a tetraploid that grows from seed.
The oil stimulates the nervous system and increases cardiac force. It induces sleep and calmness whenever the nervous system is hyperactive yet exhausted.
Dr. Cook says that Monarda oil “forms an excellent ingredient in nervine liniments containing such articles as lobelia tincture and rosemary oil. Oil of origanum is often substituted for it, but monarda possesses a nervine action not found in the more fiery origanum”.
Many native healers use wild bergamot for corpse sickness or death depression. Perhaps the oil would have a similar benefit.
It is anti-infectious, with significant antibacterial activity and minor viral and fungal resistance. Because of this, Dr. Penoel suggests it is helpful in respiratory and urogenital infections of fungal origin.
Work by Nikolaevskii et al. in 1990 suggests that wild bergamot essential oil is angio-protective. The study showed that the oil reduced the cholesterol content in the aorta and reduced infection of the aorta by atherosclerotic plaque simply by inhalation.
Further work by Doorman et al., Essential Oil Research 1995:7, found Monarda oil to be a significant anti-oxidant.
It has a mild anesthetic property that, in the diluted form, helps relieve shingle pain.
The external use of Monarda oil brings on menstruation.
Combined with turpentine or birch oil, it will relieve intestinal gas, nausea, and vomiting. Caution is advised.
The essential oil is superior to hydrocortisone, with B6 as an anti-inflammatory in treating seborrhea. Zhilyakova et al, Bull Exp Bio Med 2009 148:4 612-14.
Externally, it will quickly redden the skin but relieve rheumatic and neuralgic pains in a suitable carrier oil. It also quiets and resolves low fever states.
In studies conducted by Heinrich et al., the highest oil content of M. fistulosa is not shown by the youngest, still-growing leaves but by those of maximal size, inserted just above halfway up the stem.
Bergafill, a disinfectant germicide with good sporicidal and fungicidal activity, was made from Monarda and Lemon oil, combined with chlorophyllin and a quaternary ammonium compound. Macri et al, Nuovo Ann. Ig. e Microbiol 1965 16.
DOSE- 2-5 drops in water internally
HYDROSOLS
Monardas (M. fistulosa and M. didyma) yield pleasant waters after steam distillation.
Various hybrids have muddied the constituents, contributing to geraniol- or thymol-rich oils and similar hydrosols.
They make excellent substitutes for the European thyme chemotypes, which are expensive and difficult to access.
Geraniol is anti-infective but gentler on the skin for athlete’s foot, vaginitis, ringworm and the like.
Thymol is very aggressive, analgesic and antiseptic (think of Listerine).
Monarda hydrosol showed potent activity against filamentous and yeast forms of Candida albicans in work by Inouye et al., Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 2009 50:4.
The pH ranges from 4.1 to 4.5, with the scarlet flowered Monarda in the higher range.
Cautions: There is a low risk of skin sensitization. So please do not take it orally; it may interact with drugs. Maximum dermal level 5.75. Tisserand and Young pg. 213
Wild Bergamot
Student Project, Michelle Lund
I remember the day so clearly, as if it was yesterday. I walked among the hillsides, gathering yarrow from a field on my family farm where I grew up. It was a beautiful sunny morning, the sky clear with no clouds. As I approached the top of a hill, a blanket of purple flowers caught my eye in the distance. I had just begun my journey with herbal medicine and explored all the new medications I had just learned about. I hurried down the hillside as an excitement rose within me. “What is this?” As I approached, I realized this fantastic beauty was a Wild Bergamot. We had just learned about this amazing plant in class not long ago. As a young girl, I would ride my horse among these hills; how had I never noticed and passed by this beautiful plant? It was indeed one of the most breathtaking sights. I learned later when I asked my dad if he knew there was such an excellent medicinal plant growing on his land; he explained that he always thought it was a type of sage and that my grandmother used that plant in many meat dishes as a spice when he was growing up.
I sat amongst this beautiful purple beauty, intoxicated by the aroma, watching the bees enjoy this delightful treat. A hawk circled in the air, calling me to notice. I realized that this plant deva had so much to share with me. She had been patiently and quietly waiting amongst the hills waiting for me to see her. Even with her quiet demeanour, I knew she held much power. There was perseverance and hardiness about her due to the sandy and dry conditions in which she grew up. There was also a gentle receptiveness about her as her petals opened to the sky. I also sensed a wild side to this plant deva waiting to be expressed. That day, a powerful message from a wild bergamot and the hawk spirit animal was delivered to me. I knew there was an excellent expansiveness opening to me that day. I was waking up and was invited to trust my intuition and to see what needed to be seen. I was not only being guided by this plant deva but also a divine force looking over me. My path was right before me; I just needed to see. Wild Bergamot was a powerful teacher to me and a powerful medicine I have been called to use. I thanked this wise plant deva for her wisdom, and she graciously offered me her medicine.
I have used this medicine in healing salves due to its antiseptic, antibacterial, and antifungal qualities. A handful of dried blossoms makes a wonderfully soothing tea for my hyperactive and exhausted nervous system when I need a restful sleep. I have also found that it makes a great addition to liniments for sore muscles and possesses a powerful nervine action. Due to wild bergamot’s antiviral qualities, I add them to my fire cider potions in the winter to help fend off colds and flu. The essential oil of this plant deva offers the same benefits as the herb, although it is best to use the essential oil externally. Shingle pain, menstruation delayed by cold, and treatment of Seborrhea can all be helped with using Wild bergamot essential oil. Even simply inhaling this oil can reduce cholesterol in the aorta, making it very protective of the heart. Wild Bergamot essential oil is also helpful in many natural skin products as it balances hair and skin conditions. However, be sure to use this essential oil with carrier oil as there may be a low risk of skin sensitivity, and it is best to avoid it while pregnant.
Since the first time I met Wild Bergamot, I have made sure to visit her each year and listen to any teachings she has to offer, and each time, she abundantly thanks me for taking the time to sit with her and provide more medicine. And I am amazed that the same hawk is circling and calling above me each year I visit. In honour of this plant deva, I have used her Native American name, “Sweet Leaf,” as my brand name for my herbal products. It makes me happy I can pass on these valuable teachings to you and show you such a functional but often overlooked medicine this is!
POPLAR, VARIOUS
ESSENTIAL OILS
A pleasant, somewhat balsamic and chamomile-like essential oil is produced from the balsam poplar buds. The yield is between 0.3-0.6% of a pale yellow to light brown oil.
It contains various sesquiterpenes, mainly alpha caryophyllene, arcurcumene, humulene, cineole, (+)-alpha-bisabolol (25%), bisabolene, farnesene, and acetophenone. It distils best between 255-265°C and has a specific gravity of 0.89-0.910.
Studies from Russia in 1991 indicate that balsam poplar bud oil exhibits pronounced anti-microbial activity.
Bisabolol is a stereoisomer with a different configuration from that of German chamomile. The latter configuration is 4S, 8S, and 68.4, while poplar bud oil is 4R, 8R, and 51-54.
A study should be undertaken to compare the anti-inflammatory potential of poplar bud oil. This would help determine the commercial viability of this product for worldwide application in various cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. Several members of the Alberta Natural Health Agricultural Network, which I chaired for several years, were among the first to trial this oil. It is a beneficial oil, and considering the millions of poplar cut down each year, a distillation plant at one of the large pulp mills would be a real value-added industry.
Both essential oil and isolated (+)-alpha bisabolol are cytotoxic against human lung carcinoma (A549) and colorectal adenocarcinoma (DLD-1) cell lines, as well as activity against human glioma at a higher rate than (-)-alpha bisabolol already known for apoptosis against glioma cells. Plochon-Gauthier M et al, Nat Prod Commun 2014 9(2):257-60.
Balsam Poplar bark and twigs yield around 0.5% essential oil consisting of nearly 27% (+)-alpha-bisabolol, 11% each of alpha and beta eudesmol, and minor constituents above.
Aspen poplar buds yield essential oil, which accounts for a high 3.2% of the fresh weight. The oil is composed mainly of (+)-alpha-bisabolol, cineole, benzyl alcohol, arachidonic acid, malic acid, and citric acid.
Aspen poplar bud has a sweet, cinnamon and balsamic odour. It has been shown to possess a high capacity to inhibit LOX-5, suggesting anti-inflammatory activity. Baylac S & Racine P. Int J Aromatherapy 2003 14(4):179-82.
Determining the difference between aspen bud essential oil and absolute can be challenging, as both products are highly resinous.
Research:
Neutrophil Immunomodulatory Activity of Nerolidol, a Major Component of Essential Oils from Populus balsamifera Buds and Propolis:
Summary: This study investigated the immunomodulatory effects of nerolidol, a major component found in the essential oils of Populus balsamifera buds. The essential oils showed significant effects on activating calcium influx in human neutrophils and inhibiting their activation by specific agonists, suggesting anti-inflammatory potential.
Citation: Schepetkin, I., Özek, G., Özek, T., Kirpotina, L. N., Kokorina, P. I., Khlebnikov, A., & Quinn, M. (2022). Neutrophil Immunomodulatory Activity of Nerolidol, a Major Component of Essential Oils from Populus balsamifera Buds and Propolis. Plants. Read more.
Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil from Bark of Ten Species of Populus:
Summary: This research analyzed the essential oils obtained from the bark of ten different species of Populus, identifying various components such as hexanal, furaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, and linoleic acid, which have potential applications in industrial and medicinal sectors.
Citation: Chi De-fu (2007). Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil from Bark of Ten Species of Populus. Forest research. Read more.
Cautions: Do not take it internally, nor use it if you are pregnant or breastfeeding. Please do not use it with children under 5. Much needs to be discovered about this essential oil.
Poplar Video- Student Project, Anita Berger
RUE
(Ruta graveolens)
Rue is a shrubby herb with woody branches native to the Mediterranean area but widely grown worldwide.
Essential oils are steam distilled from fresh plants, yielding a yellow/orange oil that solidifies at room temperature. They have a sharp, herbaceous, fruity, and acrid odour.
It contains 40-90% methyl nonyl, a ketone, making it a toxic oil.
In French aromatherapy, the oil is used as an anti-spasmodic and anti-parasitic agent, especially for topical application.
The oil may be dropped on stones placed in the soil of house plants to discourage cats from digging in the pot.
Cautions: Never use it internally. Please do not use it with babies or pregnant women, as it is very toxic. Maybe an abortifacient, phototoxic and photocarcinogenic. Maximum use on skin: 0.15%.
SAFFLOWER
(Carthamus tinctoria)
An absolute is produced from Safflower used in the perfume and fragrance industry. It is a deep orange-red colour, as would be expected.
Work by Harrathi J et al., J Ess Oil Res 2013 25(6) found salinity increased the essential oil content of plants. Constituents include 1,8-cineole (23.5%), methyl eugenol (18%), 1-pentadecene (9.1%), and camphene (9%).
Cautions: Do not take internally. Do not use if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children.
SAINT JOHN’S WORT
(Hypericum perfoliatum)
ESSENTIAL OIL
CONSTITUENTS- alpha-pinene (5%), terpinene, ishwarane, longifolene, alpha-cuprenene, bicyclogermacrene (16.9%), menthyl-2-octane (13%), humulene, octanol, beta-caryophyllene (14%), caryophyllene oxide (6%) isotridecane, n-nonane (8%) undecane, spathulenol (6-21%), delta cadinene (4-8%), dodocanol, cineole, eudesmol, bisabolene, 5 and 6-methylheptan-2,4-dione, and ketones. Over 106 components have been identified, representing 86% of the oil. Yield at full flower is 3.5 mg/kilo.
The composition of essential oil is quite variable. Beta-caryophyllene is the most abundant compound in oil from Uzbekistan (11.7%) and France (0.2-28%), while alpha-pinene (21%) is found in oil from Greece.
The essential oil is steam-distilled and possesses many of the same anti-inflammatory and anti-traumatic properties as the sun-infused oil. It is expensive, but someone with a large patch of this “noxious weed” could consider distilling it.
The subtle-smelling, colourless oil requires dilution and is effective for colic and spasmodic pain in the bowel, such as colitis. It can be administered in significantly diluted quantities as an enema.
The essential oil has been used for bronchitis, asthma and pulmonary infections due to an insufficient Liver Yang.
A diluted oil infusion can be used for eardrops in cases of congestion and inflammation associated with otitis media.
An in vivo study found that essential oils may have important wound healing functions and showed anti-angiogenic effects. Kiyan HT et al., Pharm Biol 2014 52(1):44-50.
The oil is best produced by water distillation at full flower, with up to 16.9% bicyclogermacrene content. Azizi et al, J Herb Spice Med Plant 13:2.
HYDROSOL
CONSTITUENTS- dimethyl sulphide 26%, acetone 13%, 2-methyl-2-propenal 15%, various methyl butenal, hexenal, and other minor constituents.
The water leftover from steam distillation is dry and green, with a flat note. Its pH is 4.5-4.6.
Suzanne Catty mentions using hydrosol with success for SAD, or seasonal affective disorder, taking some in water both morning and evening.
She also reports some success with back pain and relief for those who have multiple sclerosis. The latter could be very important and worthy of further study and research.
Viaud suggests the water is anti-cancerous.
Brunschwig, in his Book of Distillation 1530, recommended the water mixed with peony water for epilepsy, palsy, and trembling members. It was mixed with red wine for diarrhea and floods in the belly. He wrote, “When the house walls are sprinkled with this water, it is effective against diabolical illusion.”
The herbe, that is, both the leaves, flowers and seed, steeped in wine for 12 hours and then distilled in an ordinary Still, the water here of being drunk with a bit of Sugar therein, is accounted as effectually as any decoction or other preparation, and killeth the wormes in the belly or stomacke. PARKINSON (SEAL)
Dimethyl sulphide is found in several hydrosols. Content varies but can be up to 75%. It may derive from sulphur-containing amino acids or iron pyrite. It helps break down ketones in the body, reducing their toxicity. PRICE AND PRICE
Cautions: Saint John’s Wort may be phototoxic and sensitizing to the skin. Do not use older oils. Please do not use it internally. Please do not use it when pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under 5.
SASSAFRAS
(Sassafras albidum)
Sassafras is a deciduous tree that grows from Florida to eastern Canada. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the dried root bark chips.
It is banned for food use, and the oil is tough to obtain.
It has the sweet, spicy, camphoraceous scent of root beer.
It contains 80-90% safrole, which has led to its restricted designation.
It is anti-viral, pediculicide (lice), stimulating and diuretic.
Safrole has been used in the illegal production of methamphetamine and MDMA. Mescaline and TMA 2 can also be produced from safrole.
Rat and mouse experiments involving the injection of safrole produced liver cancer over the long term. This led to a ban in 1960 by the FDA and Health Canada.
Sassafras leaves are used in the spice filé to thicken Creole gumbo.
Safrole is also present in black pepper, star anise, nutmeg, and basil.
Cautions: Never use it internally. We do not recommend this oil be used. Do not use if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children. It may produce liver cancer. Tisserand and Young suggest it should never be used internally or externally. A few drops are sufficient to kill a toddler. pg 422
SMOKE TREE
(Cotinus coggygria)
Smoke tree leaf- limonene (34-40%), alpha-pinene (24-34%), and minor amounts of beta-pinene, delta-3-carene, alpha-terpinolene, myrcene, camphene, and gamma-terpinene. The oil has a mango-like odour.
The oil is steamed and distilled from the leaves, yielding 0.10-0.12%. The alpha-pinene increases with shoot age while limonene decreases. The oil shows activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
The flower oil is slightly different. Limonene (47%), (Z)-beta-ocimene (15.2%), alpha-pinene (8.5%) and (E)-beta-ocimene (5.3%) were the main components.
The oil shows a potent inhibition of gram-positive bacteria and three Candida strains. Fraternale D & Ricci D. J Ess Oil Bearing Plants 2014 17(3): 366-370.
Cautions: Largely unknown. Do not take it internally, nor use it if pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under 5.
SWEET VIOLET (Viola odorata)
No essential oil is produced from Violet, but a flower and leaf absolute are made from Viola odorata.
The volatile oil component is tiny, at 0.003%, and is composed mainly of trans alpha ionone (parmone), with the chief constituents being (-)zingiberene, (+)-curcumene, dihydro-beta-ionone, 2,6-nonadien-1-al, undecan-2-one, and isoborneol.
The flower absolute is made by washing petroleum-extracted concrete, but it is becoming increasingly uneconomical and rare.
When diluted to 1% or less, the greenish-olive-coloured or creamy green oil has a delicate, sweet floral note.
The price is prohibitive- one kilo of absolute was worth over $15,000 Canadian before World War II! Be wary if this product is offered. A small production out of China is sometimes available. Ionone, the primary aromatic element in violet flowers, was synthesized in 1893.
On the other hand, Violet leaf absolute is still widely available and extensively cultivated in the South of France and north of Italy. It is produced by ether extraction from fresh leaves, alcohol washing, chilling, filtration, evaporation in a vacuum, etc.
The absolute is intensely green. It is used extensively in perfume blending for its green, leaf-like note. The absolute or leaf does not have a violet flower scent.
It is soothing and cooling, and it is particularly suited for the liver as a detoxifier. On a psychological level, it relieves fear and is used to treat anxiety, insomnia, nightmares, restlessness, and overexcitement.
Violet leaf absolute inhibits the enzyme HLE (human leukocyte elastase) and may be used for sun-damaged skin and anti-aging. Baylac S & Racine P. Int J Aroma 2004 14:4.
Developed in Russia, Vesna is a new V. odorata cultivar That produces 21% more raw material and 29% more and better-quality concrete than standard cultivars.
The distinct violet leaf odour is related to the content of 2-trans-6-cis-nonadienal.
The absolute is composed of 40-58% octaceda-9,12-dienoic acid, 8-17% hexadecanoic acid, 5-18% nona-2,6-dienal, 4% cis-hex-3-enol and other compounds.
Hexane extracts contain 16% pentadec-3-enal, 13% non-2,6-dienal, 13% hexadec-1-ene, 11% octadec-1-ene, 5% nona-2,6-dienol.
When steam distilled fresh, Viola tricolour yields 35 compounds, 60% sesquiterpenes, including 29% bisabolene oxide—the dried plant yields just 24 compounds, mainly aliphatics and 1% beta-ionone.
V. arvensis, when dried and distilled, yields 59% aliphatics, with beta-ionone at 2% (the distinct violet odour) and 5.4% pentyl-furan.
HYDROSOL
CONSTITUENTS-V. Tricolor ssp. arvensis– camphor 30%, linalool 24%, eucalyptol 20%, cis thujone 4%, endo borneol 4%, and minor components.
The water of Violet flowers cools the blood, the heart, liver, and lungs, overheated and quenches an insatiable desire to drink. CULPEPPER
The water of Blue Violets is good for the heat of pestilence, and it cools the heart, liver, and stomach. BRUNSCHWIG
The water of Yellow Violets is for comforting those who have lost their wits. It comforts the liver and causes women to be fruitful. It purifies after childbirth, warms the heart, and is suitable for palsy or paralysis associated with trembling and loss of speech. It causes the heart and mind of man to be merry and purifies destroyed blood. BRUNSCHWIG
The distilled water of the herbe or floures (V. tricolor) given to drinke for ten or more daies together, three ounces in the morning, and the like quantitie at night, doth wonderfully ease the paines of the French disease, and cureth the same, if the patient be caused to sweat sundry times. GERARD
Costaeus, in his book of the nature of all plants, saith that the distilled water of Harts ease is commended in the French disease, to be profitable, being taken for nine days or more, and sweating upon it, which how true it is, I know not, and wish some better experiences were made of it before we put any great confidence in that assertion. PARKINSON 1629
Research:
Composition of essential oil and biological activity of extracts of Viola odorata L. from central Iran
This study analyzed the essential oil composition from the leaves of Viola odorata, identifying 25 compounds, with butyl-2-ethylhexylphthalate and 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-2(4H)-benzofuranone as the main components. The oil, along with methanol and chloroform extracts, was evaluated for antioxidant and antibacterial activities.
Citation: Akhbari, M., Batooli, H., & Kashi, F. J. (2012). “Composition of essential oil and biological activity of extracts of Viola odorata L. from central Iran.” Natural Product Research, 26(8), 802-809. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2011.558013.
Cautions: Maybe a skin sensitizer. Please do not take it internally. Tisserand and Young pg. 468
EASTERN WILD GINGER
(Asarum canadense)
(A. acuminatum)
WESTERN WILD GINGER
LONG-TAILED WILD GINGER
(A. caudatum)
ESSENTIAL OIL
CONSTITUENTS- A. canadense-alpha pinene, d-linalool, l-borneol, limonene, alpha and gamma terpineol, linalyl acetate (28%), bornyl acetate, geraniol, methyl eugenol (37%), elemicin, asarol, 3,4-dimethoxy-cinnam-aldehyde, 2,3,4,5-tetramethoxy-allyl-benzene, a lactone, an azulene compound, aristolone and zerumbone; as well as fatty acids.
The root yields 1.96% oil, and the rhizomes slightly less (1.3%). The latter oil is 58% composed of methyl eugenol, elemicin, and asaricin. In work done in Quebec by Belanger, Collin, and others at LASEVE, the root contains about 20% (E)-isoelemicin and 4.9% elemicin, and junenol.
A. canadense root yields a gingery, woody, and spicy essential oil that has long been used in perfumery. The oil is yellow to yellowish-brown and blends well with orrisroot, adding a minty-patchouli-gingery effect or pine needle and oakmoss. Wild ginger root oil is an excellent blender with coriander, hops, and other herbaceous odours.
The root must be ground into a powder or soaked in water for 12 hours before distillation.
The oil has valuable anti-spasmodic qualities that could be used for menstrual or digestive pain.
Steven Foster says it is antibacterial, especially against gram-positive and pus-forming bacteria.
The specific gravity is 0.947-0.998, with a saponification number of 92-144 (occasionally as low as 47.5) and an acid number of 1.9-7.5. Solubility 1:1.5-2.5 and more in 70% ethanol.
Industrially, the oil is used up to 8 ppm in flavouring to impart a spicy note to condiments, candy, ice cream, beverages and other food products. It is used in the perfumery industry, often with orris root for special effects, imparting particular tones to eau-de-cologne.
Methyl eugenol is a fast-acting anodyne used in dentistry. Geraniol has been shown to inhibit pancreatic tumour growth in animals (Burke et al., 1997).
The European Wild Ginger (A. europaeum) contains asarone (see Calamus) and should not be used as a substitute for A. canadense or A. caudatum.
HYDROSOL
Wild Ginger (A. canadense) hydrosol is faintly sweet and spicy but with a cooling note, perhaps due to the methyl eugenol component of the oil that has found its way into the water. The pH is 5.4, which suggests a short shelf life, but Suzanne Catty has one batch that is still stable after 30 months.
She has found the hydrosol helpful in calming and balancing those prone to anxiety attacks and the type A personality.
One woman claimed the hydrosol cleared up a respiratory infection in three days.
Otto Brunfels, in the early 16th century, suggested Asarum “ejects the menses and a fetus, and a drink of aqua asarum (distilled) or decocted Asarum expels the fetus, whether alive or dead.”
Brunschwig, in his Book of Distillation, wrote that root water is for all breast diseases. It also comforts the lungs, coughs, and hoarseness of the voice.
Cautions: Unknown. Please do not use it internally. Do not use if you are pregnant, breastfeeding, or with children under 5.
Local and Unusual Essential Oils Video With Robert
The Deep Dives and Transformation Summary Video the Unit 4
Go to the journal below for your local plant downloads page.