AROMATHERAPY, ESSENTIAL OILS, AND THE BRAIN
Copyright- Robert Rogers
The following class involves research by Robert. So, go to the Ship’s Library. Please bring your favourite beverage. Robert’s videos follow. There is a transcript of the second video below it, then go further down the page and read the research results, not in the videos, starting with Angelica.
Remember to download his paper on anxiety and the brain at the end of the page.
Essential Oils and the Brain Video
Aromatherapy and the Brain Video-
Transcript from the Video Below–
But remember to move past this point and study the research presented, starting with Angelica and then download the paper on Anxiety and the Brain in the download section at the bottom of the page.
The Finnish sauna and Indigenous sweat lodge provide physical, psychological and spiritual benefits to the mind and body.
Saunas can help alleviate depression[i] and remove heavy metals from the skin
Of all the applications, oral ingestion of essential oils is by far the least effective and most potentially dangerous, despite what your MLM company may suggest.
Organic or wild-crafted essential oils are preferred. They are produced by cold expression (e.g., citrus peels) or steam distillation. Essential oils are made from all parts of plants, including flowers, leaves, stems, roots, bark, and seeds.
The primary inhalation route is quite powerful, influencing the lungs but, more importantly, the olfactory nerves and then the olfactory bulb. This directly influences the hypothalamus, pituitary, piriform cortex, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, striatum and hippocampus. In turn, the pituitary gland governs the functioning of the thyroid, adrenal, and gonadal systems and the HPA axis.
Our olfactory receptor gene family comprises 1% of all genes.
Various essential oils will change brainwave patterns. Olfactory dysfunction is associated with depression, Parkinson’s disease, AD and other neurodegenerative conditions. Lavender oil, for example, induces alpha-wave activity reasonably quickly.
Basil, black pepper, cardamom and rosemary induce beta-wave patterns associated with attention and alertness. Jasmine, neroli and rose induce delta patterns related to calmness and euphoria.[ii] Siberian fir needle EO increases theta brain waves.
A recent study found postgraduate students with academic stress responded to lavender oil by exhibiting theta brainwave activity.[iii]
Sesquiterpenes in EOs increase the number of specific receptors in the brain and suggest possible treatment for AD, PD and schizophrenia spectrum disorder.[iv]
Essential oils show benefits in reducing inhalant cravings.
Massage stimulates and sedates body tissue. It can increase delta waves associated with deep sleep, alpha waves associated with relaxed and meditative states, or decrease beta waves associated with alertness and stress. It stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system and may relieve depression due to increased dopamine and serotonin levels.
Small amounts enhance or modify emotions and may interact with receptors for neurotransmission and enzymes in the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Work by Balacs[v] compared blood plasma concentrations of lavender oil after massaging to adequate levels of various psychoactive drugs. Linalool and linalyl acetate in lavender showed a level of 100 nanograms/ml, compared to the antidepressant amitriptyline (200 ng/ml), the tranquillizer Chlorpromazine (100 ng/ml) and morphine (65 ng/ml).
Essential oils may work through the GABA receptors or sodium channels. An excellent review of EOs and their mode of action was published by Wang and Heinbockel[vi]
Snoezelen is a Dutch concept focusing on multisensory stimulation in an adapted environment. It was originally developed for people with severe and profound intellectual (and multiple) disabilities. It started in the 1970s for severely disabled people and later expanded its use for dementia patients. These rooms give the residents an experience of aroma, sound, texture, and vision.[vii],[viii]
This concept could be integrated into North American long-term dementia and AD care facilities as an alternative to the over-medication and lack of interaction in present health care models.
It should be noted that many essential oils, if taken orally or, in some cases, olfactory, induce seizures or convulsions in those prone to epileptic events. These include hyssop, pennyroyal, fennel, yarrow, Spanish lavender, and wintergreen.
A large number of essential oils are contraindicated during pregnancy and breastfeeding.[ix]
Essential oils will often evoke repressed memories and may be helpful in psychotherapy when childhood traumas have been buried and continue to influence mental and emotional health negatively.
Aromatherapy massage has been found more beneficial than inhalation in a systematic review of EOs for depression.[x]
Anxiety affects people in a variety of ways. Several studies on stress relief with patients and hospital staff identified lavender, sweet orange, bergamot, frankincense, rose, and neroli EOs as their scents of choice.[xi]
Olfactory dysfunction is one marker for detecting Alzheimer’s disease. Individuals showing positive for the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) e4 allele are at higher risk and are linked to olfactory decline.[xii] This group only comprises 5% of AD cases. People with Alzheimer’s often lose their ability to detect smells.
Specific changes in olfactory function accompany children/adolescents with disorders of dopamine transmission, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia.[xiii] Many essential oils show significant effects through anti-amyloid, antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and memory enhancement.
Be leery of health and beauty products containing fragrances. While this term might mean essential oils, it covers nearly four thousand potentially harmful chemicals listed under an “umbrella” transparency list, including 65 with known carcinogenic effects.
First, a word about odour receptors: they are found throughout the body, not just in the olfactory epithelium. They are found in the liver, heart, kidneys, spleen, colon, lungs, testes, and brain. For example, odour receptors in the kidneys help control metabolic function and regulate blood pressure. They also help navigate sperm to the ovulated egg. And in the skin, they stimulate keratinocytes that induce cell proliferation, migration, and regeneration.
Here is a summary of some aromatic oils for various conditions associated with brain health.
This research has not been discussed in the Videos Above, So Please Study.
Angelica (Angelica archangelica) root EO may be helpful for nicotine addiction. One small study found inhaling the oil allowed
subjects to wait an average of 53 minutes before having a cigarette.[xiv]
Angelica gigas EO, derived from the root, shows significant changes in absolute low beta (in both left temporal and parietal) activity and may help enhance language learning in the human brain.[xv] It may also be effective in treating nicotine addiction, possibly through modulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.[xvi]
Sweet Basil essential oil (EO) alleviates memory impairment and hippocampal neurodegenerative changes induced by chronic stress.[xvii]
Bergamot (EO) has long been used to elevate mood. A study of 41 healthy females was tested in a randomized crossover study and measured for salivary cortisol. The bergamot group showed lower cortisol and improved fatigue and negative emotions scores.[xviii]
Bergamot is often diffused into mental health waiting rooms. One study on 57 women found that fifteen minutes of exposure to the essential oil improved positive feelings compared to the control.[xix]
Bergamot oil EO shows neuroprotective effects and may be helpful for anxiety disorders.[xx] The EO may be helpful in cancer pain, mood disorders and stress-induced anxiety.
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) essential oil inhalation significantly reduces nicotine withdrawal symptoms.[xxi]
A 2002 study by Haze et al., published in the Japanese Journal of Pharmacology, found that black pepper, tarragon, fennel, or grapefruit oil resulted in a 1.5 to 2.5-fold increase in relative sympathetic activity.
Cajeput (M. cajuputi) influences the anterior thalamus, helping aid concentration, clearing thoughts, and managing change.
Carrot seed (Daucus carota) eases anxiety and apathy. Through its activity on the hypothalamus and anterior thalamus, it acts as a sedative and vital nervous system.
Cataia or Craverio (Pimenta pseudocaryophyllus) EO contains over 93% (E)-methyl isoeugenol. It demonstrates anxiolytic and anti-depressant properties via the serotonergic pathways.[xxii]
From aerial parts, Chervil (Anthriscus nemorosa) EO has been found to possess anti-anxiety, anti-depressant, and cognitive benefits in a scopolamine-induced amnesia model in rats.[xxiii]
Cinnamon essential oil has been beneficial for attention problems, irritability and ADHD.[xxiv]
Cinnamon leaves contain large amounts of eugenol. There is a link between the anti-depressant activity of eugenol and its monoamine amine oxidase A (MAOA) inhibition.[xxv] MAO is an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters such as adrenaline, dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin.
Cassia (C. tamala) EO reduces Candida fungal strains’ biofilm and exopolysaccharide layer.[xxvi]
Coriander seed EO increased anxiolytic-antidepressant behaviour in a beta-amyloid rat model of AD. Beta-amyloid deposits were less in those treated with EO, probably due to suppression of oxidative stress.[xxvii]
Clove bud (Syzygium aromaticum) leaves, buds, and stems are also rich in eugenol and exhibit the same MAO inhibition as cinnamon.
Clove bud oil may be helpful for depression, based on a rat study where they were exposed to chronic, unpredictable, mild stress.[xxviii]
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) influences the anterior thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. This helps ease anger, anxiety, grief, and lack of concentration and regulates the autonomic nervous system.
Eucalyptus EO can induce seizures, so extreme caution is advised in epileptic patients.[xxix]
Sweet Fennel essential oil induced a seizure in one 38-year-old epileptic woman.[xxx]
Various religions have long used frankincense (Boswellia spp) to create meditative and mood-altering benefits during the ceremony. Incensole and its acetate help alleviate anxiety or depression.[xxxi]
Frankincense influences the hypothalamus and aids the parasympathetic nervous system. Geranium oil also influences this gland, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.
In randomized clinical trials, oral intake of Boswellia serrata gum resin in a lecithin-based form helps reduce symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis.[xxxii],[xxxiii]
Galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua) influences the hypothalamus and creates a soothing and stimulating balance. It is vital to the nerves, calming erratic moods, nervous tension, and various symptoms around menopause and PMS.
Ginger EO, specifically 6-gingerol, can be an effective remedy in preventing and treating AD. It enhances the immune system, increases antioxidant capacity, and protects against beta-amyloid 25- 35.[xxxiv]
Juniper berry EO inhalation showed improvement in amyloid-beta-induced memory deficit in a rat model of AD.[xxxv]
Lavender EO was tested on 97 patients with mild to moderate anxiety in a randomized DB study involving neutral and anxiety-provoking film clips. Those taking lavender oil capsules showed reduced anxiety.[xxxvi]
One in ten Americans takes sleeping pills on a nightly basis. These include harmful OTC anti-cholinergic drugs such as Benadryl, Dramamine, Excedrin PM, Nytol, Sominex, and Tylenol PM. People create eventual brain health dysfunction by blocking the cholinergic pathway (acetylcholine). A controlled DB study compared lavender oil capsules and lorazepam and found comparable results for sleep and generalized anxiety without the sedation and potential drug abuse associated with pharmaceuticals.[xxxvii]
In the 1980s, a nurse in Oxford, England, introduced lavender and marjoram EO into her ward of elderly patients. She reduced the drug bill by one-third by gradually replacing analgesia and night sedation with essential oils, either vaporized or in massage oil. Another hospital in Oxford offered the option of aromatherapy or sleep medication, and nearly all patients chose the former.[xxxviii]
Numerous studies have found lavender useful for insomnia.[xxxix]
A Norwegian survey of 12 nurses found lavender EO reduced insomnia in all four residential homes for dementia patients.[xl]
One study involved sleep patterns in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Parents would apply a 2% lavender cream to their forearms before bedtime. Hours of sleep and waking were recorded for three weeks; the first was for baseline, the second was for lavender, and the third was for washout. During the lavender week, 8 of the ten children had a dramatic reduction in the number of times they awoke and needed attention.[xli]
A six-week study involved 23 children with moderate to severe ADHD enrolled in horse riding classes. Each child inhaled three drops of lavender EO for five minutes before their ride. Children, parents, and teachers rated the results, showing that the oil calmed the children and improved their focus.[xlii]
A Japanese randomized, controlled trial of 28 patients with dementia found two drops of lavender on their collar three times daily had a measurable effect on symptoms.[xliii]
A Chinese clinical trial of 28 elderly found that lavender, lemon, sweet orange, and rosemary EO inhalation significantly improved cognitive function.[xliv]
Sundowning is a disruptive behaviour expected in dementia patients between 3 pm and 6 pm. Lavender diffusion into a common room at a large residential long-term facility in Massachusetts found all ten patients, previously agitated at that time, became calmer.[xlv]
Lemon and other citrus peel EOs contain limonene. Recent work suggests limonene may help ameliorate drug-addiction-related behaviours by regulating postsynaptic dopamine receptor supersensitivity.[xlvi]
Lemon and rosemary EOs were diffused in the morning and lavender and sweet orange in the evening in a study of 28 elderly patients with dementia, including 17 with AD. It involved three periods of 28 days each of control, aromatherapy and washout. All patients showed significant improvement related to cognitive function after the aromatherapy period on the Gottfries, brane, and Steen scale and Touch Panel-type Dementia Assessment Scale.[xlvii]
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) EO shows potential for treating agitation in people with severe dementia. Melissa showed an affinity for binding with 5HT1A and the agonist binding site GABAA receptors. It also reduced social withdrawal times and increased the time spent on constructive activities for dementia patients.[xlviii]
According to a 2014 study by Elaine Perry at Newcastle University, lemon balm and lavender reduce agitation associated with severe dementia.
A DB, PC-controlled trial of the EO involved a dilute oil that 72 AD patients applied to their face and arms twice daily for four weeks. A 35% improvement in agitation was noted in the group using Melissa.[xlix]
Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) influences the hypothalamus and amygdala, calming panic attacks, PMS, and stress-related conditions. It is a sedative (unlike sweet orange) and helps soothe hyperactivity.
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) EO contains sesquiterpenes that affect opioid agonists.[l] This suggests possible application and diffusion in opioid treatment centers.
Neroli (Citrus aurantium var. amara) EO has a sedative effect on mice and gerbils, the latter exhibiting anti-anxiety properties
similar to the control drug Xanax.[li]
Both sweet orange and rose EOs were tested, olfactorally, on 20 female university students. A significant decrease in oxyhemoglobin concentration in the right prefrontal cortex and an increase in “comfortable,” “relaxed,” and “natural” feelings were found, suggestive of both physiological and psychological relaxation.[lii]
Patchouli EO reduces the biofilm and exopolysaccharide layer of Candida fungal strains.[liii]
Patchouli has been found to have a pronounced influence on the limbic system, especially the pituitary gland. It also influences the hypothalamus and anterior thalamus, being sedative in low doses and stimulating in higher amounts.
Peppermint EO reduced nausea associated with opiate and crack withdrawal in all eight patients. The oil was given 30 minutes before meals.[liv]
Peppermint essential oil rich in menthol/menthone was tested orally in a DB, PC-balanced cross-over study of 24 participants. The highest dose (100 uL) improved cognitive performance and showed acetylcholinesterase inhibition and GABAA/nicotinic receptor binding properties.[lv]
Perilla (Perilla frutescens), as well as sage and peppermint EOs, contain perillyl alcohol. The 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model of Parkinson’s is widely used to research the disease. In one study, the compound demonstrated sufficient neuroprotection and restoration of mitochondrial membrane potential.[lvi]
Petitgrain (Citrus auranticum var. amara) influences both the anterior thalamus and hypothalamus, easing anxiety, depression, hyperactivity, insomnia and mental fog.
Pine (Pinus sp.) needle oils contain alpha-pinene, which enhanced non-rapid eye movement through GABAA-benzodiazepine receptors in mouse studies.[lvii]
Roman Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) has a wide-ranging influence on mental, emotional and nervous states. It influences three parts of the limbic structure: anterior thalamus, hypothalamus and amygdala.
Rose (R. x damascena/R. centifolia) influences the pituitary, hypothalamus, amygdala, and anterior thalamus glands. This oil is sedative in small amounts and more stimulating in higher dosages. A 2013 DB, PC clinical study by Maryam Marofi et al. looked at the influence of rose oil on perceptions of pain in 64 children aged 3-6. A significant decrease in pain intensity was noted for the essential oil group.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus sp.) EO shows moderate AchE (acetylcholinesterase) 
Inhibition increases locomotor activity, motivates vigour, stimulates the cerebral cortex, causes mood relaxation and increases alertness. This suggests benefits in the management of neurodegenerative conditions such as AD, senile dementia and myasthenia gravis.[lviii]
Rosemary is very stimulating, and lavender is more calming. A study of 144 subjects in 2002 at Northumbria University found lavender and rosemary significantly affect cognitive performance. Lavender decreased working memory, impaired alertness and retention time for memory and attention-based tasks. Rosemary implored the quality and speed of working and secondary memory and increased alertness. Contentment was noted in both groups.
Children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are given stimulants such as Ritalin or Adderall. In one study of four children with ADHD attending piano lessons, lavender diffused into the air caused them to be more inattentive and restless. Rosemary EO increased attention and less restless behaviour in three of the four.[lix]
Short-term and numerical memory on 79 school children (aged 13-17) showed positive results.[lx]
The 1,8 cineole content of rosemary, found in the blood plasma of healthy volunteers following inhalation, has been correlated with improved cognitive performance.[lxi]
Saffron (Crocus sativus) EO contains safranal, which shows anti-convulsant activity due to agonist activity on GABAA receptors.[lxii]
Sage (Salvia officinalis) EO was trialled in a single-blind randomized controlled trial of mood and cognition in healthy volunteers, with positive results.[lxiii]
Lavender-leaved sages (Salvia lavandulaefolia) has been used for centuries to improve memory and cognition. An in vitro study found that the oils inhibit cholinesterase, suggesting benefit in AD.
In a pilot, open-label study, oral administration of EO in patients with mild to moderate AD reported significant improvement in memory and cognition.[lxiv]
A DB, PC balanced cross-over study examined cognitive/mood effects from a single oral dose of EO and showed benefits in young, healthy adults.[lxv] More research is needed.
Southern Burnet Saxifrage (Pimpinella peregrina) EO inhalation relieved scopolamine-induced memory deficits, depression and anxiety in a rat model of AD.[lxvi]
Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) influences the hypothalamus and anterior thalamus, relieving nervous exhaustion and overcoming shock through revitalizing action.
Thymol and carvacrol, two primary compounds in Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) EO, reversed the beta-amyloid and scopolamine memory impairment in an animal model, suggesting possible benefits in AD and dementia.[lxvii]
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) EO contains the sesquiterpene valerenic acid, which influences GABA receptors[lxviii] and lignan hydroxypinoresinol, which binds to benzodiazepine receptors.[lxix]
Vetivert EO may be helpful in the treatment of ADHD and ADD and relieve insomnia. A study of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder had them inhale vetiver oil thrice daily for 30 days. Improved brain wave patterns, improved behaviour, and better class marks were observed in EEGs.[lxx]
Vetiver influences the anterior thalamus, hypothalamus, and amygdala, helping reduce withdrawal symptoms from medications, especially tranquillizers. Its earthy, grounding influence eases hyperactivity and hypersensitivity.
Ylang Ylang (Cananga odorata) EO was studied in a small group of ten women suffering cravings from substance abuse withdrawal. A few drops were applied to cotton and put under the pillow or on a hanky to smell if they experienced a craving. It did not work for all, but four out of five in the EO group believed smelling the oil relieved stress and anxiety.[lxxi]
Ylang-ylang EO given in massage oil for patients with epilepsy remained in their consciousness for some time. The patient only had to think about the aroma of ylang-ylang to prevent a seizure from occurring.[lxxii]
A 5% blend of ylang-ylang, Roman chamomile and lavender was given to patients with alcohol addiction to rub into the throat and chest before bedtime. It appealed to women more than men, but a positive change of more than 50% of feeling less restless was accompanied by reduced anxiety and less insomnia.[lxxiii]
An interesting study on alcohol addiction compared aromatherapy and auricular acupuncture. Ninety-nine participants were divided, with both groups having the same reduction in craving and withdrawal symptoms.[lxxiv]
Bipolar disorder is increasing, perhaps due to better recognition and diagnosis. See Chapter 13.
Adjunct use of essential oils may be helpful, but it requires testing and approval by the patient. If they like the odour, they may benefit from using it in diffusers or as part of massage therapy.
EOs to consider in Bipolar Disorder are geranium, lavender, sandalwood, angelica root, rose, patchouli, ylang-ylang, valerian, vetiver, spikenard, Melissa, bergamot and clary sage.
Avoid white camphor, hyssop, nutmeg, pennyroyal, and tansy. These oils contain high levels of ketones that can negatively affect the brain.
A recent paper on essential oils for AD in pre-clinical and clinical studies may interest mental health professionals.[lxxv]
References:
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[ii] Moncrieff, R. 1977. Emotional response to odours. Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics 50: 24-25.
[iii] Kusumawardani, S.R. et al. 2017. Theta brainwave activity as the response to Lavender (Lavendula angustifolia) aromatherapy inhalation of postgraduate students with academic stress. IOP Conference Series: Material Science and Engineering 180 012271.
[iv] Elisabetsky, E. 1997. Anticonvulsant properties of linalool and gamma-decanolactone in mice. WOCMAP II- Abstracts, Mendoza Argentina.
[v] Balacs, T. 1995. The psychopharmacology of essential oils. Aroma ’95 Conference Proceedings: Brighton: Aromatherapy Publications.
[vi] Wang, Z.J. & T. Heinbockel. 2018. Essential oils and their constituents target the GABAergic system and sodium channels to treat neurological diseases. Molecules 23(5).
[vii] Lofan, M. & C. Gold. 2009. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of individual intervention in the controlled multisensory environment (Snoezelen) for individuals with intellectual disability. J Intellect Dev Disabil 34(3): 207-15.
[viii] Berg, A. et al. 2010. Snoezelen, structured reminiscence therapy and 10-minute activation in long term care residents with dementia (WISDE): study protocol of a cluster randomized controlled trial. BMC Geriatr 31(10):5.
[ix] Szott-Rogers, Laurie. 2014. Scents of Wonder: Aromatic Solutions for Health, Beauty and Pleasure. Second Ed. Prairie Deva Press. Edmonton Alberta.
[x] Sánchez-Viana, D.I. et al. 2017. The effectiveness of aromatherapy for depressive symptoms: A systematic review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med doi: 10.1155/2017/5869315.
[xi] Buckle, J. 2015. Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Healthcare. Third Ed. Elsevier page 228.
[xii] Green, A. 2013. Age and apolipoprotein E e4 effects on neural correlates of odour memory. Behav Neurosci 127(3): 339-49.
[xiii] Schecklmann, M. et al. 2013. A systematic review of olfaction in child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. J Neural Transm 120(1): 121-30.
[xiv] Buckle, J. 2015. Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Healthcare. Third Ed. Elsevier page 290-1.
[xv] Sowndhararajan, K et al. 2017. Effect of the essential oil and supercritical carbon dioxide extract from the root of Angelica gigas on human EEG activity. Complement Ther Clin Pract 28: 161-8.
[xvi] Zhao, R.J. et al. 2005. The essential oil of Angelica gigas NAKAI suppresses nicotine sensitization. Biol Pharm Bull 28(12): 2323-6.
[xvii] Ayuob, N.N. et al. 2018. Ocimum basilicum improves chronic stress-induced neurodegenerative changes in mice hippocampus. Metab Brain Dis 33(3): 795-804.
[xviii] Watanabe, E. et al. 2015. Effects of bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oil aromatherapy on mood states, parasympathetic nervous system activity, and salivary cortisol levels in 41 healthy women. Forsch Komplementmed 22(1): 43-9.
[xix] Han, X. et al. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oil inhalation improves positive feelings in the waiting room of a mental health treatment centre: A pilot study. Phytotherapy Research 31(5): 812-16.
[xx] Bagetta, G. et al. 2010. Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot. Fitoterapia 81: 453-461.
[xxi] Rose, J. & F. Behm. 1994. Inhalation of vapour from black pepper extract reduces smoking withdrawal symptoms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 34(3): 225-9
[xxii] Fajemiroye, J.O. et al. 2014. Anxiolytic and antidepressant-like effects of a natural food flavour (E)-methyl isoeugenol. Food Funct 5(8): 1819-28.
[xxiii] Bagci, E. et al. 2016. Anthriscus nemorosa essential oil inhalation prevents memory impairment, anxiety and depression in scopolamine-treated rats. Biomed Pharmacother 84: 1313-20.
[xxiv] Chen, H.M. & H.W. Chen. 2008. The effect of applying cinnamon aromatherapy for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Chinese Medicine 19(112): 27-34.
[xxv] Tao, G. et al. 2005. Eugenol and its structural analogs inhibit monoamine oxidase A and exhibit antidepressant-like activity. Bioorg Med Chem 13(15): 4777-4788
[xxvi] Farisa, B.S. et al. 2018. Effects of patchouli and cinnamon essential oils on biofilms and hyphae formation by Candida species. J Mycol Med 28(2): 332-339.
[xxvii] Cioanca, O. et al. 2013. Cognitive-enhancing and antioxidant activity of inhaled coriander volatile oil in an amyloid-B rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. Physiol Behav 120: 193-202.
[xxviii] Liu, B.B. et al. 2015. The essential oil of Syzygium aromaticum reverses the deficits of stress-induced behaviours and hippocampal p-ERK/p-CREB/brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression. Planta Medica 81(3): 185-93.
[xxix] Matthew, T. 2017. Eucalyptus oil inhalation-induced seizure: a novel, under-recognized, preventable cause of the acute symptomatic seizure. Epilepsia Open 2(3): 350-4.
[xxx] Skalli, S. 2011. Epileptic seizure induced by fennel essential oil. Epileptic Disord 13(3): 345-7.
[xxxi] Al-Harrasi, A. et al. 2019. Distribution of the anti-inflammatory and anti-depressant compounds incensole and incensole acetate in genus Boswellia. Phytochemistry 161: 28-40.
[xxxii] Riva, A et al. 2019. Oral administration of a lecithin-based delivery form of boswellic acid (Casperome®) for the prevention of symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized clinical study. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 65(1): 30-35.
[xxxiii] Pellegrini, L. et al. 2016. Managing ulcerative colitis in remission phase: usefulness of Casperome®, an innovative lecithin-based Boswellia serrata extract delivery system. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 20(12): 2695-2700.
[xxxiv] Lee, C. et al. –Gingerol attenuates beta-amyloid-induced oxidative cell death via fortifying cellular antioxidant defence system. Food Chem Toxicol 49: 1261-9.
[xxxv] Cioanca, O. et al. 2015. Anti-acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activity of inhaled juniper oil on amyloid beta (1-42) induced oxidative stress. Neurochem Research 40: 953-960.
[xxxvi] Bradley, B. et al. Effects of orally administered lavender essential oil on responses to anxiety-provoking film clips. Human Psychopharmacology 24: 319-330.
[xxxvii] Woelk, H, & S. Schlafke. 2010. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study of the lavender oil preparation Silexan in comparison to Lorazepam for generalized anxiety disorder. Phytomedicine 17: 94-99.
[xxxviii] Buckle, J. 2015. Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Healthcare. Third Ed. Elsevier page 171.
[xxxix] Ibid page 172-175.
[xl] Johannessen, B. 2013. Nurses experience aromatherapy use with dementia patients experiencing disturbed sleep patterns. An action research project. Comp Ther Clinical Practice 19(4): 2009-13.
[xli] Blyth. 2011. Effect of lavender on the sleep of autistic children. Unpublished RJBA dissertation.
[xlii] Hynson, B. & J. Gilbert. 2009. Unpublished dissertation. RJ Buckle Ass.
[xliii] Fujii, M. 2013. Lavender aroma therapy for behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia patients. Geriatr Gerontol Int 8(2): 136-8.
[xliv] Jimbo, D. et al. Effect of aromatherapy on patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Psychogeriatrics 9: 173-179.
[xlv] Curran, P. 2003. Effect of diffusing lavender at sunset on patients with dementia. Unpublished dissertation for RJBA.
[xlvi] Gu, S.M. et al. 2019. Limonene inhibits methamphetamine-induced sensitizations via the regulation of dopamine receptor supersensitivity. Biomol Ther (Seoul) doi: 10.4062.biomolther.2018.213.
[xlvii] Jimbo, D. et al. 2011. Effect of aromatherapy on patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Psychogeriatrics 9: 73-7.
[xlviii] Elliott, M. et al. 2007. The essential oils from Melissa officinalis L. and Lavandula angustifolia Mill. are a potential treatment for agitation in people with severe dementia. International J Essential Oil Ther 1: 143-152.
[xlix] Ballard, C.G. et al. 2002. Aromatherapy as a safe and effective treatment for the management of agitation in severe dementia: the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Melissa. Journal Clin Psychiatry 63: 553-558.
[l] Dolara, P. et al. 1996. Characterization of the action on central opioid receptors of furaneudesma-1,3-diene, a sesquiterpene from myrrh. Phytotherapy Research 10(supp 1): 81-83.
[li] Chen, Y. et al. 2008. Inhalation of neroli oil and its anxiolytic effects. J Complement Integrative Med 5(1).
[lii] Igarashi, M. et al. 2014. Effects of olfactory stimulation with rose and orange oil on prefrontal cortex activity. Complement Ther Med 22(6): 1027-31.
[liii] Farisa, B.S. et al. 2018. Effects of patchouli and cinnamon essential oils on biofilms and hyphae formation by Candida species. J Mycol Med 28(2): 332-339.
[liv] Chalifour, M. Peppermint in opiate-withdrawal in a locked hospital unit. Unpublished dissertation for RJ Buckle Assoc.
[lv] Kennedy, D. et al. 2018. Volatile terpenes and brain function: investigation of the cognitive and mood effects of Mentha x piperata L. essential oil with in vitro properties relevant to central nervous system function. Nutrients 10(8) doi: 10.3390/nu10081029.
[lvi] Anis, E. et al. 2018. Evaluation of the phytomedicinal potential of perillyl alcohol in an in vitro Parkinson’s disease model. Drug Dev Research 79(5): 218-224.
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