The Rutaceae Deva

 

Orientation:

Please listen to the guidance of your animated instructor. We will hold this class in the Ship’s Library. Please grab your beverage (a glass of orange juice might be apropos) and notebook. Also, scan the essential oils discussed on this page. Bring any of the oils that you have from the Rutaceae family, along with your Scent Strips.

When you settle in your favourite library chair, could you read through the oil properties below? Short videos with extra information on each of the essential oils are available. Please make notes as you watch since the video’s information may offer different insights than the written notes.

Download your Scent Impression Sheet Here-
https://www.northernstarcourses.com/lesson/f-the-scent-impressions-sheet/

Your Journal Download will be at the bottom of the page

The Rutaceae Family

In aromatherapy, the Rutaceae family and its members—orange, lemon, lime, bergamot, petitgrain, and neroli—are among the most popular scents loved by the young and elderly alike. These oils infuse our spaces with brightness and a touch of zest. Whether it’s the uplifting cheer of orange, the refreshing zest of lemon, the crisp freshness of lime, the sophisticated allure of bergamot, the woodsy notes of petitgrain, or the delicate floral elegance of neroli, these scents are universally beloved.

They don’t just smell wonderful—they lift moods. Most of the oils in this family are citrus. Expressed citrus, especially bergamot, can cause photosensitization. This reaction is much less likely if the citrus oil is steam-distilled rather than expressed. There are compounds called furanocoumarins in these oils (interchangeably called furocoumarins) that are too heavy to rise with steam distillation, but they are present in the mechanical expression of citrus oils. It is these compounds that cause the photosensitivity to occur.

Oils of the Rutaceae Family

Amyris/ West Indian Sandalwood/Jamaican Rosewood

Amyris balsamifera

From: West Indies, Haiti, Jamaica, Venezuela

Class: sesquiterpenes (70%)

3 Key Constituents: Valerianol a-Eudesmol, 7-epi-xEudesmol, elemol. (Tisserand & Young pg. 193-Tisserand in private communication with Pappas, 2004; Tucker, 2003; Van Beek et al. 1989)

Steam-distilled wood- an evergreen, bushy tree- up to 8 meters tall. The bark is rough and dark. The leaves smell citrusy when rubbed. It is also known as torchwood or candlewood due to its rich content of highly flammable oils. The resin is used in varnishes, cosmetics and perfumery.

The scent is sweet, woody, dry, and slightly bitter, unlike that of Santalum oils (Holmes 2016). However, it does share two properties with Sandalwood. It is an excellent lymphatic decongestant for pelvic and lower limbs, including varicose veins and hemorrhoids. It is also a cardiac restorative for weakness and chronic stress-related heart issues.

Favourite Usage: I love to blend with this essential oil. It is a beautiful, subtle base note. It is also wonderfully soothing in the bath.

Uses:

Respiratory: Soothing coughs and bronchitis- Sheppard-Hanger p. 103.

Muscles and Joints: reduces muscle pain and swelling—Sheppard-Hanger p. 103.

Cardio/Lymph: heart tonic, hemorrhoids, lymph circulation. Sheppard-Hanger p. 103.

Skin: Purchon and Cantele, pg. 30, suggest it as a toner and face wash in anti-aging products. It is anti-microbial and used for acne, rashes, and dry skin.

Mental and Nervous System: It relaxes, eases tension, and is sedative. It supports cognitive flexibility and sensory integration (Holmes 2016).

Perfume Note: Base. Pale, yellow, thick oil. Soft, woody scent. Used in soap making. Soft-mid odour intensity.

It blends with benzoin, bergamot, black pepper, cedarwood, clary, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, jasmine, lavandin, lavender, lemon, lime, mandarin, melissa, nutmeg, oakmoss, orange, rose, rosemary, rosewood, sandalwood, sassafras, thyme, vetiver, and ylang. It is used to dilute vetiver.

Spiritual and Mythological:

Amyris may have been named from the Greek word Amyron, which means intensely scented. In the past, the oily wood was used to create torches.

Research:

Essential Oil Constituents: The essential oil is rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes, with significant concentrations of β-sesquiphellandrene, elemol, and various eudesmols, indicating potential for therapeutic and industrial applications (Beek, Kleis, Posthumus, & Van Veldhuizen, 1989).

Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antioxidant Activities: Amyris balsamifera essential oil shows strong antibacterial and antifungal effects against multidrug-resistant pathogens and contains potent antioxidants, highlighting its potential for addressing resistant microbial infections and oxidative stress (Dahiya & Manglik, 2013).

Larvicidal Activity: The essential oil has demonstrated 100% larvicidal activity against Culex pipiens pallens at a low concentration, indicating its potential as a natural insecticide (Park & Park, 2012).

Repellent Activity Against Ticks: Amyris balsamifera essential oil and its component, elemol, have been found to repel ticks effectively, comparable to DEET, suggesting its use as a natural repellent in tick prevention strategies (Carroll, Paluch, Coats, & Kramer, 2010).

Cautions: Avoid during pregnancy with babies and children. Some skin allergies were reported.

Scent Impressions Sheet– Remember to make your scent impressions with all of the essential oils in the Rutaceae family you can sniff!

The Amyris Video-

Bergamot

Citrus bergamia

From: Calabria, Italy, Ivory Coast, Guinea

Bergamot is an inedible fruit on a small tree grown mainly in Southern Italy and the Ivory Coast, but it is originally from tropical Asia.
Class: ester, monoterpenols, alcohol

3 Key Constituents: (+)-Limonene (19-52%), Linalyl acetate (17-58%), Linalool, bergapten (0.44%).
Cold-pressed from the peel. Recent DNA analysis shows the fruit is a hybrid between the Bitter Orange (Citrus x aurantium) and the sweet Lime (C. limetta).

Yield is about one kilo from 200-250 fresh, slightly unripe rinds. The oil is light emerald to olive green in colour, with a warm, fruity, sweet citrus overtone. It was first produced commercially in Sicily and Calabria around 1690.

Favourite Uses: Bergamot is a delightful mental and emotional pick-me-up. I also love the taste of Earl Grey tea, and bergamot provides its distinct flavour.

It helps us let go of preconceived notions, fixed ideas and ego-driven thoughts. Peter Holmes, Aromatica, Vol 1, 2016. page 140.

Uses:

Respiratory: inhalations, chest rubs, bronchitis, coughs, colds, laryngitis. It is anti-viral and treats urinary bacterial infections in the mouth and throat.
Hair and Skin: acne, boils, cold sores, psoriasis, pruritis, scabies, eczema, wounds, varicose veins, ulcers, seborrhea of skin and scalp, insect repellent. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 167. Softening to dry, cracked skin. Natural deodorant, killing bacteria responsible for odour. The oil has been used in dilution for vitiligo.
Cardio: pulmonary, antiseptic.
Immune: halitosis, sore throat, tonsillitis, colds, flu, infections, herpes, shingles, chickenpox, and malaria-Sheppard-Hanger pg. 167.

Shingle pain from the varicella virus is painful. A small study by Noel Gilligan (Noel@mystic-monk.com) found that bergamot, niaouli (M. viridiflora var. quinquenervia), and Ravensara aromatic as an aromatic spritzer reduced pain in all six patients and helped dry up shingle pustules.

Digestive: painful digestion, dyspepsia, colitis, cramps, flatulence, made worse by stress. Anorexia, loss of appetite. The oil is both a gastro-biliary stimulant and an anti-spasmodic relaxant.
Genito: antiseptic, cystitis, thrush.

Muscles and Joints: Purchon and Cantele pg. 39 say bergamot oil eases the pain by numbing nerves.
Mind: uplifts but is calming and sedative; balances mood swings, encourages, refreshes, sedates; relieves irritability, anxiety, depression, pessimism, and stress-related disorders. It promotes optimism in cases of emotional conflict and instability.

Bergamot eases anxiety and depression and is an MAO inhibitor. Mannucci et all 2018 and Catalano et al 2022.

It is helpful in bipolar disorders, ADHD, and addictive behaviour. In TCM terms, it regulates the flow of Qi and opens the heart chakra. The keyword with bergamot is balance.

Perfumery: Citrusy, fruity, orange, uplifting; top note. Odor intensity-low. This scent is adored by many.

Blend with Amyris, black pepper, clary, cinnamon, clove, cypress, frankincense, geranium, helichrysum, jasmine, lavender, lemon, mandarin, neroli, nutmeg, orange, palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, rose, sandalwood, thyme, vetiver, and ylang. Bergamot is a major component in eau de cologne.

TCM- Regulates Qi and harmonizes Shen. Affinity to Wood and Fire Elements. Peter Holmes (2016).

Research:

Neuropharmacological Effects:
Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has shown significant impacts on neurobiological activities, including modifying synaptic transmissions to influence stress-induced anxiety, mild mood disorders, and even pain sensations. The findings suggest a rationale for its use in complementary medicine (Bagetta et al., 2010).

Modulation of Reactive Oxygen Species:
BEO increases reactive oxygen species production in human leukocytes, potentially enhancing immune responses and posing a pro-inflammatory risk. This dual action necessitates careful consideration for clinical applications (Cosentino et al., 2014).

Enhancement of Mood States:
Aromatherapy using BEO improved mood states and increased parasympathetic nervous system activity among participants, highlighting its potential for enhancing psychological well-being and reducing stress (Watanabe et al., 2015).

A study investigating Bergamot’s analgesic efficacy and fractions demonstrated significant analgesic properties of BEO and its components, particularly highlighting the roles of limonene, linalool, and linalyl acetate in reducing pain​ (MDPI). https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/14/5/1006

Clinical Pharmacology and Applications:
Citrus bergamia has been studied for its stress-reducing properties and potential in managing hyperlipidemia. Clinical trials suggest that Bergamot essential oil could be safe and helpful in reducing stress symptoms and may support UVB therapy against psoriasis. However, the evidence of its effectiveness and safety requires further large-scale studies (Mannucci et al., 2017).

Essential Oil in Aromatherapy:
Bergamot essential oil is mainly used in aromatherapy to reduce anxiety and stress, showcasing beneficial effects on human health without significant side effects (Navarra et al., 2015).

Hypolipidemic Effects:
Studies have shown that Citrus bergamia juice can significantly reduce serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL levels while increasing HDL levels in hyperlipidemic rats. This suggests potential cardiovascular benefits from regular intake (Miceli et al., 2007).

Anti-Adipogenic and Lipolysis Modulating Effects:
Research indicates that Citrus bergamia extract can inhibit adipogenesis and promote lipolysis by modulating gene expression related to fat metabolism, suggesting its potential use in obesity management (Lo Furno et al., 2016).

Cautions: Bergamot may irritate sensitive skin. It is phototoxic. If applied to the skin, it must not be exposed to sunlight or sunbed for 12 hours. Older oxidized oils are more likely to cause sensitization. Bergamot is one of the worst offenders of skin burns. People use it as a perfume or on their hair; when exposed to sunlight, it can cause blistering burns.

Tisserand & Young, pg. 211 suggests the oil is stored in a dark, airtight container in a refrigerator. It is much safer when used in preparations, at no more than 0.4%. Bergaterpen-free bergamot oil, which does not have the photosensitizing effect, is widely available on the market and used in skin care products. Still, it only possesses some of the benefits listed above.

The Bergamot Video

Grapefruit
Citrus x paradisi

The grapefruit is a hybrid that originated when Jamaican sweet orange and pomelo (C. grandis) were crossed in the late 1600s. It is an evergreen tree that is usually about 20 feet tall but can grow up to 49 feet.

White Grapefruit– From South Africa, China, USA.

Pink Grapefruit- From the USA, Brazil, and Argentina.

Citrus x paradisi

Pink grapefruit has a more sparkly scent than white grapefruit, but they have the same characteristics. Pink contains more linalool, while White is higher in aldehydes. Both are widely adulterated due to distillation after fruit juice is extracted. Please don’t use distilled grapefruit oil. Cold-pressed, organic oils are preferred.

Class: terpene

3 Key Constituents: (+)-Limonene (82-95%), B-Myrcene (1-4%), a-Pinene (<1.6%)
Cold-pressed from the peel
Cosmetic Uses- includes athlete’s foot, acne, oily skin, tones, congested skin, lightens skin, and aids hair growth. It tightens wrinkles, cellulite, stretch marks, and poor muscle tone.
Respiratory: airborne disinfectant.
Muscular: eases muscle and tendon fatigue and stiffness.
Cardio/Lymph– increases circulation and stimulates lymph system detoxification.
Immune: colds, chills, flu. Purchon and Cantele, pg. Sixty-three says, “A study found that grapefruit essential oil shows promise against hospital-acquired infections and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This suggests grapefruit is an effective topical antiseptic treatment option, even for antibiotic-resistant strains such as MRSA and antimycotic-resistant Candida species”. It kills E. coli and salmonella bacteria. It benefits swollen glands, lymphatic water retention, and abdominal obesity.
Digestive: It stimulates the gall bladder, is a digestive aid, and is a liver tonic. If used regularly, it regulates body weight. Anorexia/Bulimia. Sheppard-Hanger, pg 175. A drop in water reduces sugar cravings.
Genito increases urine flow, eases water retention, and improves cellulite.
Mind: depression, headache, nervous exhaustion, performance stress. It is excellent in a bath or shower blend to fight jet lag. It’s suitable for PMS blends. It may be useful for alcohol and drug withdrawal and euphoria. May be helpful for poor short-term memory, bipolar disorder, ADHD

Perfumery: Top note: light, fruity, citrusy scent. Odor intensity is low.

Blend with basil, bergamot, cedarwood, chamomile, citronella, clary,  clove, cypress, eucalyptus, fennel,  frankincense, geranium, ginger, juniper, lavender,  palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, rosewood, thyme,  and ylang. Combines well with lemon for rheumatic conditions, juniper berry for edema and urinary issues, and rosemary for nervous conditions such as mental fatigue and depression. Combines with sweet fennel for anorexia and as a cholagogue with lemongrass for lymphatic congestion and swollen glands.

Mythology and Spirituality– Related to cleansing and cleansing rituals. The shape of the individual grapefruit slices is moon-like and associated with the moon and the moon goddesses.

Grapefruit may help our prayers be heard and connect us to our inner goodness.

Grapefruit is a wake-up remedy for the mind and spirit. It might help connect our mind and body. Overall, it is a happy, spontaneous, and cheerful scent.

Research is for both white and pink Grapefruit:

Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Properties

The essential oil exhibits excellent antioxidant activity, suggesting its potential to combat oxidative stress, which is implicated in many chronic diseases and aging processes. Additionally, its application significantly inhibited inflammation in animal models, comparable to ibuprofen (Alrasheid et al., 2019).

Antibacterial and Anticandidal Activities
Citrus paradisi essential oil showed a potent antifungal effect against Candida albicans with low cytotoxicity, suggesting its utility as an alternative treatment in oral antifungal therapy. This positions it as a promising candidate for managing infections where resistance to conventional treatments is a concern (Martínez Delgado et al., 2020).

Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Capacities
Research highlights that the oil from Citrus paradisi peels has strong antimicrobial activities against pathogens like E. coli and Salmonella enterica and significant antioxidant capacities, underscoring its potential for use in healthcare and food preservation (Ou et al., 2015).

TCM- Grapefruit peel oil helps resolve dampness, regulates Qi, and strengthens Shen. It combines the psycho-olfactory qualities of Lemon and Mandarin. It harmonizes the head-heart connection. Holmes, P. (2016) pages 230-1.

Caution: Older (over two years) oxidized oils are possibly phototoxic. Do not go in the sunlight or sunbed for 12 hours after use. Store the oils in a cold place in an airtight container. Limit use to 4% for skin- Tisserand & Young pg. 297. Tisserand also says that grapefruit juice can interact with drugs, but the essential oil is not at all likely to cause drug interactions.

The Grapefruit Video

Grapefruit Adventures- Lu Meissner, Student Project- Press on Grapefruit Adventures below

Grapefruit Adventures Lu Unit 4A

Lemon

Citrus limonum

Above is the YouTube link to Lemon Tree Song by Peter, Paul, and Mary.

The lemon peel is extracted from the rind for aromatherapy purposes. (The whole fruit of lemon can be steam distilled, and this is used in the flavour industry) but the resulting oil is more bitter in scent. Steam-distilled oil is, however, less phototoxic, but it is not recommended.

Adulteration is high, as various industries remove the photo-sensitizing coumarins for the food and perfume industries. They are also adulterated with distilled oils, synthetic limonene, and preservatives. Use organic, cold-pressed only. The fresh rind yields about 1 kg from 120-150 kg.

Lemon leaves may also be distilled, but there are more contraindications with their use, so the leaves are generally not used in aromatherapy.

From: Italy, Argentina, USA. Originally from Southeast Asia, and brought by Moors to Sicily and Spain in the 10th century.
Class: monoterpene

3 Key Constituents: (+)Limonene, B-Pinene, y-Terpinene (Lawrence 1993 p. 61-69).

Favourite Use- I am a huge lemon fan, especially the fruit juice. I drink it hot with maple syrup. It soothes my ruffled feathers. The essential oil is disinfecting. Every time I use it to clean, I feel the area has been disinfected with sunshine!

Uses:

Cosmetic: mouth ulcers, herpes, cellulite, acne, boils, corns, warts, balances sebum production, couperose and dry skin, thin hair and nails, shines hair and increases growth. Strengthens epidermis function. It tightens blood vessels, stimulates and tones connective tissue, and lightens skin pigment. Sheppard-Hanger, pg. 173.

Lemon oil is helpful for venous deficiency with poor tone, phlebitis, thrombosis, swollen glands, and fibrocystic breasts. It is strongly anti-fungal for Candida, tinea, ringworm, intestinal fungal dysbiosis and anti-viral against herpes, warts, and verrucas. Combine lemon oil with helichrysum for thrombosis and phlebitis. It is escharotic in squamous cell cancer. Dilutions of 0.5% to 1.0% are used in skincare due to irritating quality.

Lemon can also remove warts and soothe infection from insect bites and stings (Purchon and Cantele, p. 74).
Respiratory: asthma, sore throat, bronchitis, catarrhal sinus infections.
Muscular: rheumatic and arthritic conditions, gout. It combines well with juniper berries for rheumatic and arthritic conditions and with Scotch Pine, Niaouli, or Hyssop as an antilithic for gallstones.

Cardio/lymph raises blood pressure, prevents hypertension, and thins the blood—varicose veins. Dilute in a carrier oil and rub into the skin with lemongrass to relieve congested lymph glands.

Immune: Colds, flu, fever, congestion, and airborne bacteria stimulate white blood cells. Lemon stimulates the production of white blood cells that fight infection.

Combine 4-6 drops of lemon essential oil with 1 tsp honey and add to a tepid bath to cool a fever. Purchon and Cantele pg. 75.

Purchon and Cantele pg. 75- The monoterpene d-limonene is effective in preventing and treating cancer. In cases where a tumour is present, the monoterpene can affect the reversal of tumour growth in multiple ways.

Lemon juice is anti-bacterial. Mix the juice of one lemon with a litre of drinking water to help purify the water.

To help stop the spread of infection, spray 5% lemon essential oil and 95% water into the air.

Teeth and Mouth: Cantele and Purchon, pg. 74, help to stop nosebleeds and wounds. Dip a cotton swab in a little carrier or water in the mouth when using it, and add a drop of lemon oil. Rub onto the area where the tooth was extracted.

Lemon juice is helpful as a gargle for sore throats, bronchitis, coughs, and throat infections. You could add a drop of lemon essential oil to a half glass of tepid saltwater and gargle for similar results.

A 2:1 ratio of lemon and ginger oil shows benefits in decreased salivary gland function after radioactive iodine therapy for thyroid cancer. Nakayama M et al, Biomed Res Int 2016;2016:9509810.

Digestive: constipation, detoxifies liver cleanser, stimulates the pancreas, reduces blood sugar. Use the juice rather than the oil when making a drink.

Genito: induces labour when overdue. Reduces urine excretion, aids nephritic colic, and stimulates all gland secretion and smooth muscles. Aids candida infections. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 173

Mind: stimulates the brain and all sense organs, clears thought, and aids concentration. Inhaled, it has been shown to reduce blood pressure. Helpful for ADD and depression. Increases prefrontal cortex function and promotes discernment and critical thinking. Relieves procrastination and promotes the ability to plan and visualize. Relieves insomnia and nightmares due to nervous sedation.

Perfumery-Refreshing, citrusy, top note.

Low odour intensity.

Blends with Basil, bay, bergamot, cardamom, chamomile, elemi, eucalyptus, fennel, frankincense, geranium, ginger, hyssop, juniper, lavender, lavandin,  labdanum, lime, neroli, nutmeg, orange,  petitgrain, palmarosa, rose, sandalwood, vanilla, and ylang.

History– Lemon originated in Asia, possibly an ancient hybrid between bitter orange and citron.

Mythologically, citrus fruits were associated with the Greek goddess Hera. Three nymphs guarded her fruit- Aigle tended the citron, Arethusa the lemon, and Hesperethusa the orange. The lemon – the golden fruit

Worwood says lemon clarifies by uplifting and enhancing focus.

TCM- Raises the clear Yang, resolves dampness and strengthens Shen. This helps relieve mental fatigue, poor concentration, and focus. Combines with lemongrass or grapefruit for heaviness in the body, swollen glands and breasts, and water retention. It clears heat and calms Shen in cases of fever, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, and rapid, forceful pulse. It is the only citrus oil that treats the weakness of the nervous system. Holmes, P. ( 2016) page 241-3.

Video- Vanessa, the Deva/Fairy,

Discusses Lemon Juice as a Gargle-

Research:

Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities: A study explored lemon essential oil’s chemical composition, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. It assessed the oil’s preservative effect against Listeria monocytogenes in minced beef meat and demonstrated the oil’s potential in food preservation and its antimicrobial properties against various microorganisms (BioMed Central). https://lipidworld.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12944-017-0487-5

Aromatherapy in Palliative Care: Another study investigated using lemon oil pads to alleviate nausea and vomiting among palliative care patients with advanced cancer. This retrospective analysis found that lemon oil aromatherapy provided adequate relief for 73% of the applications. It highlighted the potential of lemon oil as a complementary therapy in palliative care to improve patient’s quality of life​ (MDPI). https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/9/2131

Stress Reduction:
Lemon essential oil components, including limonene, γ-terpinene, and citral, have potent stress-alleviating effects. They inhibit the elevation of serum

corticosterone and brain monoamine levels, suggesting a potential role in managing physical and psychological stress (Fukumoto et al., 2008).

Neurodegenerative Disease Prevention:
Lemon essential oil from peels inhibits key enzymes like acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, which are linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Its antioxidant properties also help prevent oxidative stress-induced lipid peroxidation in the brain (Oboh et al., 2014).

Learning and Memory Enhancement:

The aroma of lemon essential oil has been studied for its potential to enhance learning behaviours, with findings suggesting it may positively affect attention levels, cognitive performance, and memory in rats (Ogeturk et al., 2010).

Antidepressant-like Effects:
Lemon essential oil has shown antidepressant-like effects by modulating levels of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin in mice, indicating its potential use in mood regulation and depression treatment (Hao et al., 2013).

Cautions: Older oils may be phototoxic. Store in a dark, airtight container in the refrigerator. Limit the percentage used on the skin to under 2%. Do not expose skin to sunlight or a sunbed for 12 hours after use. People with dermatitis may react to lemon oil. Keep the oil away from children and pets.

The Lemon Video

The Lemon Travels
Leanne McKinnon, Student Project, A short story – click below
Unit 4A Lemon, Leanne

Gratitude to Lemon
Michelle Lund- Student Project- click below
Gratitude to Lemon

Lime-

There are a variety of lime oils from different regions, with slightly different smells and properties. We will discuss only two types. The chemical components may vary.
Persian/Tahitian Lime (Citrus latifolia). This hybrid is of crucial lime and either lemon or citron (C. medica).

Key Lime or Sour Lime (C. x aurantifolia)

From: Mexico, Florida- native to south Asia

3 Key Constituents: monoterpenes (<73%) including (+)-Limonene (36-64%), B-Pinene (4-12%), y-Terpinene (6-18%) (Lawrence 1989 p. 176, 1993 p. 137). Cold-pressed Tahitian oil is higher in aldehydes, including neral, geranial, and citral.
Expressed peels (class: terpenes, esters) are almost always expressed with Tahitian lime. Expressed lime from the peels is preferred over the sharper, more acidic, and less sweet distilled lime oil used for food and soft drinks. Avoid distilled oil.
Distilled peels (Class: monoterpene, alcohol). Yield is excellent, with one kilogram produced from 50-100 kg of the peel.

Favourite Use: Fresh lime juice in margaritas is unbeatable. The fake margarita cocktail mixes taste inferior and can leave a chemical hangover from the mix alone. A drop of essential oil in an olive oil base beautifully picks up the flavour of salad and chicken. Please make sure you are not allergic to lime before using it.

Uses:
Skin: distilled- deodorant, astringent. Smoothes skin and contracts and tones tissue. It can treat dull, oily skin with its mild bleaching action. Like lemon, lime may remove warts and soothes insect bites and stings. Purchon & Cantele pg. 77.
Respiratory: cold pressed lime disinfects the air.
Distilled may be preferable for a cough, cold and congestion.
Immune: distilled- colds, sore throat, flu, cold sores and viral infections. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 171
Digestive: distilled- liver pains.
Mind: both types- apathy, anxiety, depression, listlessness, exhaustion, tired mind, uplifting, stimulant, refreshing, stimulating, useful in alcoholism, ADD. It is suitable for stuck emotions, especially from past negative experiences.

The oil relaxes hypertonic/tense conditions and cools hot conditions. It is a solid systemic nervous and vascular relaxant, sympathetic nervous system inhibitor, refrigerant receiving inflammation, hot spells and flushes, fevers, and acute stress-related conditions. It supports awareness, foresight, and creative envisioning. Holmes (2016) volume 2-284.

Perfumery-Fruity, citrus, refreshing; Top note: citrusy, low odour intensity.

Blends with angelica, bergamot, cilantro, geranium, lavender, nutmeg, neroli, palmarosa, rosemary, and ylang.

It combines well with Mandarin/Bergamot for acute stress, agitation, insomnia, anxiety, and headaches and with Marjoram or Lemongrass/Lemon Eucalyptus to relax nerves and spasms of smooth and striped muscles, as well as acute anxiety and insomnia. Combine with Ylang-ylang for tachycardia and palpitations from intense anxiety or fright. Combine with wintergreen or birch oil to relieve severe acute rheumatic, arthritic, or tendon inflammation.

Cautions: The expressed type is phototoxic; the distilled type is not. Keep the oil in an airtight container, refrigerated. Limit application to the skin to 0.7%. Do not go into the sunlight or sunbed for 12 hours after use. Lime oil may irritate the skin. In a bath, use only about one drop of lime.

Sweet or Italian Lime
Citrus limetta is a smaller and sweeter lime. It is originally from Southeast Asia and has been cultivated in southern Italy since the 9th century. It is sweeter due to the content of linalyl acetate.

The actions of  Mexican and Tahitian lime are very similar. Mexican lime has a sweeter flavour and scent. Mexican lime is steam-distilled more commonly than regular Tahitian lime (although it is still used chiefly in the peels) for aromatic purposes.

From Central America, Florida, the Caribbean, and Italy, there is an oil called limette.
Class: monoterpene, linalyl acetate (28%).

3 Key Constituents: (+)-Limonene, B-Pinene, y-Terpinene (Kubecza 2002-Tisserand & Young pg. 337.)

Sweet Lime (C. limetta) is used mainly for painful gut spasms, as in IBS, colitis, and IBD, due to high levels of linalyl acetate, suggesting its use in chronic rather than acute conditions.

TCM- Lime oil clears heat, clarifies the Heart, activates Qi, and calms the Shen. Holmes (2019).

Research:

The first study evaluated a topical antifungal containing essential oils from lime, oregano, and tea tree combined with vitamin E. This study involved patients with mild to moderate onychomycosis, a common nail infection. The treatment showed a high success rate, with most patients achieving a complete cure of onychomycosis. It highlighted the potential of lime essential oil, among others, as an effective component in topical antifungal treatments​ (Karger Publishers). https://karger.com/sad/article/6/1/14/291444/An-Open-Study-to-Evaluate-Effectiveness-and

The second study focused on the biological activities of Citrus aurantifolia essential oil (CAEO), including its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and insecticidal effects. This research found CAEO to be highly effective in various applications. It exhibited significant antioxidant activity and demonstrated pronounced antimicrobial effects, particularly against Gram-negative bacteria. The study also noted CAEO’s potential in controlling insects, suggesting its use as a natural insecticidal agent​ (MDPI). https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/12/3/735

Antioxidant and Hypolipidemic Effects:
Lime essential oil extracted from peels has shown significant antioxidant capacity and protective effects against lipid-induced hyperlipidemia in rats. Key components identified include limonene, γ-terpinene, and β-pinene, which contribute to its health benefits by improving serum cholesterol and liver enzymes and reducing obesity and fatty liver (Lin et al., 2019).

Antimicrobial Effects:
Cold-pressed lime essential oil has demonstrated notable antimicrobial effects against several pathogens, including Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. This positions it as a potential natural alternative for treating infections and enhancing food safety (Pro et al., 2019).

Chemical Composition Analysis:
A review of the non-volatile fraction of cold-pressed citrus essential oils, including lime, highlights their diverse applications and the importance of monitoring psoralen levels due to their photoactivity. This is crucial for ensuring the safety and efficacy of lime essential oil in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries (Russo et al., 2020).

Skin Inflammation Alleviation:
The essential oil from Citrus limetta Risso peels, obtained via cold-pressed extraction, was studied for its anti-inflammatory effects on the skin. It showed potential in treating skin inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species in both in-vitro and in-vivo models (Maurya et al., 2018).

Cautions: Expressed lime is phototoxic; distilled is not. Keep the oil in an airtight container, refrigerated. Limit application to the skin to 0.7%. Do not go into the sunlight or sunbed for 12 hours after use. Lime oil may irritate the skin. In a bath, use only about one drop of lime. Lime is a cooling relaxant and is contraindicated in cold and weak conditions. It should be used for acute but not chronic forms of inflammation and fever.

The Lime Video

Lime, Lu Meisnner,
Student Project – Access Lu’s project by tapping on Lime, Lu, below
Lime Lu, Unit 4a

Mandarin
Citrus reticulata var. mandarine
It is the same species as tangerine but a different cultivar. They have very similar properties.

The mandarin tree has more heavily perfumed flowers. Originally from China, it is now widely produced in milder climates.

From: Sicily, Israel, South Africa, Brazil.
Cold-pressed from peel. This is the “Christmas orange,” available seasonally.
Class: aldehyde

3 Key Constituents: (+)-Limonene (65-77%), y-Terpinene (up to 22%), a-Pinene; (Lawrence 1996b p. 25-28). Yield is 1 kilo from 100-150 kilograms of fresh, bruised peels. Three mandarin oils are available (Green, Yellow and Red), with the latter being the sweeter and more rounded.

Uses:
Cosmetic: skin toner that prevents acne, congestion, oily & combo. Skin, moisturizing, softening to dry skin; scars and stretch marks. It is also excellent for aging and mature skin—spot relief of acne boils, plantar warts, and vitiligo.
Lymph: increases lymph circulation and aids detoxification.
Genito: Increases urine flow and aids edema, PMS, and menstrual cramps. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 177

Cardiovascular: relieves palpitations, hypertension, and stress-related nervous heart conditions. Combine with Ylang for palpitations, tachycardia, and other stress-related issues.

Digestive: hiccups. Relieves constipation when used as a juice. Combines well with Petitgrain for chronic stress conditions and digestive disorders. Combine with sweet fennel for biliary and gastric upset, including bloating, gas, and nausea.

Mind: calms excitation, anxiety, stress, insomnia, nervousness, restlessness. Great for children or in bringing out the inner child. Quells nausea. Useful in mood swings, irritability, frustration, anger, tension, or depression with guilt, morbid thoughts,  melancholia, low energy in the morning and stress-related insomnia. It helps reduce deep limbic system hyperfunction and may be helpful in bipolar, ADHD and minor depression.  It is a valuable antiemetic, relieving nausea and vomiting. Like Bergamot, it is profoundly stabilizing and calming. However, it is superior in cases of dark, negative, hardened or morbid thought patterns, especially in those presenting chronic guilt and self-deprecation. It helps to lighten, open and soften the emotional heart. P. Holmes, Aromatica 2016 vol 1 page 256.

Perfumery: Fruity, orange, citrus, top-mid note. It has a low odour intensity but is more robust than orange. It can boost the scent of orange-based blends. You can use it sparingly with grapefruit, lime, neroli, and oakmoss.

It blends with Basil, bergamot, black pepper, cinnamon, clove, chamomile, coriander, frankincense, geranium, juniper, jasmine, lavender, palmarosa, petitgrain, patchouli, rose, and sandalwood.

TCM—Mandarin helps regulate Qi and harmonize Shen. It addresses dysregulation conditions due to its warm aroma in constrained or stagnant Qi. It is helpful for moderate tense conditions with irritability, insomnia, and stress conditions affecting the heart and solar plexus. Holmes (2016).

Research:

Anticancer Properties:
The essential oil from the mandarin peel, particularly its major component limonene, has shown significant antiproliferative effects on human tumour cell lines such as lung adenocarcinoma and hepatocarcinoma. This highlights its potential for development as an anti-tumour agent (Manassero et al., 2013).

Antibacterial and Anti-Biofilm Properties:
Incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles, mandarin essential oil exhibited enhanced antibacterial properties and significant potential in pork preservation, showcasing its utility as a natural antimicrobial agent in food processing (Song et al., 2021).

Alternative Fuel Source:
Investigating the combustion characteristics of diesel engines, mandarin essential oil mixed with diesel fuel showed potential as an alternative fuel source, reducing emissions and improving engine performance (Gad et al., 2021).

Mycotoxin Reduction:
The bioactive molecules in mandarin seed oils have shown the potential to diminish mycotoxin production and the presence of fungi, suggesting its use in food safety applications (Alharthi et al., 2021).

Cautions: Older oils may be phytotoxic. Store in a dark, airtight container in the refrigerator. It is very mildly phytotoxic, but when combined with other citrus essential oils, it can add to the total phytotoxicity potential.

The Mandarin Video-

Tangerine

Citrus reticulata var. tangerine
From: USA, Mexico, Brazil
Class: monoterpene

This is a different mandarin cultivar; otherwise, it is a similar plant with more heavily scented flowers and fruit.

Three key Constituents are (+) Limonene, y-terpinene, and a-pinene (Lawrence 1996b, pp. 25-28) for mandarin.
Cold expression of the peel

Uses:
Cosmetic: smoothes stretch marks and helps break down cellulite pockets. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 179.
Respiratory: muscle spasms.
Digestive: gall bladder, reduces excess fluid.
Genito: PMS, menstrual cramps.
Mind: soothes and strengthens the nervous system and eases grief.
Cautions: Older oils may be phytotoxic. Store in a dark, airtight container in the refrigerator. 343 (mandarin) is not phytotoxic in itself, but when combined with other citrus fruits, it can add to the total phytotoxicity potential.

The Tangerine Video

Sweet Orange
Citrus x sinensis  C. aurantium var. dulcis

From: Portugal, China, USA, Italy, Brazil
Class: monoterpene (<98%)

Many orange oils are from different countries, each with a slightly different chemical profile. The word orange is derived from the Italian Arancio and, in turn, from the Persian Narang. It is a hybrid citrus initially cultivated in China, and by 1336, the trees were grown in France. In the 16th century, Portuguese traders brought trees from Ceylon and China to Portugal and the Canary Islands.

3 Key Constituents:(+)-Limonene (86-95%), B-Myrcene (1-4%), a-Pinene, aldehydes. (Lawrence 1995g p. 48-49)
Steam-distilled peel or cold-pressed. The yield is one kg from 80-200 kg of fresh ripe peels after scarring. The former is pale yellow with a thinner, less rich odour. Cold-pressed peel is only degraded due to the predominance of distilled oil in the soft drink industry. Synthetic limonene is often added to inferior oils.

Cosmetic: It is suitable for most skin types: dull, oily, puffy, dry, and mature. It softens skin and protects it from drying (Sheppard-Hanger, pg. 179). It also softens thickened skin and callouses and restores connective tissue, wrinkles, cellulite, and stretch marks. However, it stimulates melanocyte production, so caution is advised. Distilled oil is better for topical use.

Immune: It helps treat fungal infections and kills bacteria. It is an adrenal stimulant (Sheppard-Hanger, pg. 179) and an adjunct treatment for an irregular heartbeat.

Digestive: Relieves gas, bloating, cramps, and spasms; mild digestive and anti-spasmodic. Gastric and biliary stimulants, cholagogue, and carminative help relieve constipation. Combines with geranium as a nerve relaxant and spearmint or peppermint for gastric or biliary indigestion. The former is preferred for upper digestive stimulation, such as belching and hiccups, and the latter for fullness, abdominal pain, colic, and irregular stools.

Respiratory: Purchon and Cantele, pg. Ninety-one say orange used with lavender is effective against respiratory infections. It is helpful for bronchitis, the common cold, and mild anti-fungal infections.

Cardiovascular:  neurocardiac and arterial circulatory relaxant, hypotensive, nervous heart. Mild diuretic for edema.

Mind: Cheering, uplifting. A study of 40 male volunteers looked at the positive benefit of sweet orange oil in anxiety-causing situations. Goes TC et al., J Altern Complement Med 2012 18(8): 798-804. The oil affects mood and lowers blood pressure.

Another study found orange oil reduced anxiety and improved mood in dental offices. Lehrner J et al, Physiol Behav 2005 86(1-2): 92-5.

It helps reduce deep limbic system hyperfunctioning, making it useful for irritability, mood swings, agitation, pessimism, discouragement and mild depression.

It’s very similar to Bitter Orange. Except it is less helpful for sore muscles and bones.

Cleaning: Many cleaning formulas are made from orange oil. It cuts through grease and leaves a home smelling sweet. Sweet orange is a better environmental disinfectant than bitter orange.

Bitter oranges have a similar fragrance but are more vital regarding physiological benefits. It is a moderate venous and lymphatic decongestant.

Perfumery: Vibrant, citrusy, orange and refreshing; Top note. Very low odour intensity. It is very mildly scented and easily overwhelmed by other essences.

Blends with: Most other scents:-angelica, bay, bergamot, black pepper, cinnamon, coriander, clove, cypress, frankincense, geranium, ginger, grapefruit, jasmine, juniper, lavender, litsea cubeba, marjoram, neroli, nutmeg, patchouli, petitgrain, rose, rosewood, sandalwood, vetiver and ylang.

Sweet orange combines well with grapefruit for lymphatic drainage and swollen lymph glands.

TCM: Sweet Orange oil regulates Qi, settles the Heart and harmonizes Shen.  Holmes (2019).

Mythology and Spirituality–

Nature-Speak/Ted Andrews
Keynote: Trust emotions and dreams; time to release fears.

“All citrus trees have qualities in common. Their energy and fragrance are consistently cleansing. Their flowers are most abundant in the spring, but only about 2% of all citrus flowers produce fruit. The flowers are usually so plentiful that even this small percentage is enough to ensure a good crop. Citrus trees are also long-lived. They can last as many as 100 years if cared for properly.

There are primarily three types of oranges. All speak to our sensitivity in some manner. The navel is thick-skinned and sweet-tasting. It is often a reminder that we may also need to be more thick-skinned. Are we being overly sensitive? Or are we being too thick-skinned and insensitive? The second, typical orange, is thin-skinned and very juicy. It often reflects how close our emotions are to the surface, and we may need to control them more. The third type is the blood orange, which has reddish skin and juice, and of all the oranges, it ripens first – usually in the spring. It can remind us that our emotions are tied to our physical health and must be balanced.

The fruit’s orange colour reveals much about this tree’s qualities. Orange is a colour associated with emotional energy – positive and negative. The tree, its fruit, and its fragrance stimulate clarity of emotions. It can assist us in releasing emotional trauma gently. As a messenger, it usually speaks to us about something emotional.” Spirit Lodge – Orange Tree

Research-

Neuroprotective and Antioxidant Effects:
Essential oils from the peels and seeds of sweet oranges have shown inhibitory effects on enzymes related to neurodegenerative diseases (acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase) and protected against brain lipid peroxidation. This suggests potential therapeutic applications in managing Alzheimer’s disease and related conditions (Ademosun et al., 2016).

Bactericidal Efficacy on Food Contact Surfaces:
Essential oil extracted from sweet orange peels showed effective antibacterial properties against common foodborne pathogens like Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Escherichia coli, suggesting its application for cleaning and sanitizing food contact surfaces (Lin et al., 2010).

Antimicrobial and Chemical Properties:
The essential oil obtained from Bingtang sweet orange peel showed a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities, making it useful for various applications in food safety and possibly in medical fields to combat infectious agents (Tao et al., 2009).

Larvicidal Efficacy: Another study focused on the larvicidal activity of orange essential oil against Aedes aegypti mosquito strains in Brazil. The research demonstrated that yeast-encapsulated orange oil was highly effective in killing mosquito larvae, pointing towards a potential eco-friendly solution for mosquito control (BioMed Central). https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-021-04733-2

Alleviating PTSD Symptoms: In the realm of mental health, a study presented at Experimental Biology 2017 indicated that orange essential oil could help alleviate symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The findings suggest a possible non-pharmacological approach to easing PTSD symptoms using this essential oil​ (ScienceDaily)​. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170424141354.htm

A study on the essential oil of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L.) explored its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. This research used oil extracts from the fruit peels and pulp of sweet oranges collected from a farm. The study found that the oil extracts exhibited significant antioxidant activity, demonstrated by tests such as DPPH radical scavenging activity and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity. The oil showed antimicrobial activity against various bacterial and fungal pathogens, suggesting its potential use in food preservation and as a natural antimicrobial agent​ (Open Biotechnology Journal). https://openbiotechnologyjournal.com/VOLUME/16/ELOCATOR/e187407072206160/FULLTEXT/

Cautions: Orange oil may become phytotoxic if it is oxidized. Store in a cool, dark place in an airtight container. The distilled oil is non-sensitizing to the skin. Cold-pressed oils are a mild skin irritant and moderately photosensitizing.

 The Sweet Orange Video

The following three essential oils originate from the same tree- Citrus aurantium.

Bitter orange essential oil is obtained from the fruit’s peel, petitgrain from the leaves, twigs, and neroli, and orange blossom from the flowers. It is the most thoroughly used plant in aromatherapy.

Bitter Orange
Citrus aurantium var. amara

Seville or sour orange Bigarade

The bitter orange is smaller and darker than the sweet orange.

From: Italy
Class: monoterpene

3 Key Constituents: (+- Limonene, B-Myrcene, Linalool; (Lawrence 1989 p/ 41, 200b p. 46-49)
Re-distilled (for skin) or cold-pressed from the peel

Cosmetic: dry, dull, oily, congested skin, acne, wrinkles, mouth ulcers; strengthens and softens skin. Stimulates nerve endings. It can aid skin hydration. Bitter orange oil calms oil gland functions, increases the hydro-lipid layer, supports regeneration, and aids cellulite and stretch marks. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 165
Respiratory: bronchitis and chills. Cantele and Purchon, pg. Ninety say it has been investigated for its anti-histamine effects, and it may also reduce swelling.
Muscular: sore muscles & bones; helps form collagen to repair.
Cardio increases circulation, raises blood pressure, promotes warmth, eases palpitations, and is an anticoagulant. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 165
Immune: colds, flu, chills, fever. Bitter orange oil treats venous and lymphatic congestion and is more potent than its cousin, Sweet Orange.
Digestive: kidney & gall bladder action, constipation.
Endocrine: stimulates all anterior lobe hormones- gonadotropic hormones, including growth and sex hormones. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 165
Genito: Relaxes uterus and aids post-partum depression.
Mind: eases anxiety and insomnia.

Perfumery: Top note. Fruity and more tenacious than sweet orange. Still low odour intensity.

Blends with: clary, frankincense, geranium,  labdanum,  lavandin, lavender oakmoss, and rosemary.

Research:

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity:
The essential oil from bitter orange peel (Citrus aurantium L.) obtained by hydrodistillation and cold pressing showed limonene as the dominant compound. The study notes significant differences in the chemical composition between the two extraction methods and the limited antioxidant activity of the oils. This variation is important in applications where specific chemical components are desired for their therapeutic effects (Radan, Parčina, & Burčul, 2018).

Anti-inflammatory Effect:
The essential oil from Citrus aurantium var. Amara has shown significant anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory markers such as nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). This suggests its potential use in treating inflammatory-related diseases (Shen, Jiang, Zhu, & Qin, 2017).

Anxiolytic and Sedative Effects:
Essential oil from Citrus aurantium has been used for its anxiolytic and sedative effects, as demonstrated in experimental models with mice. This supports the traditional use of bitter orange for managing anxiety and related disorders (Pultrini, Galindo, & Costa, 2006).

Antifungal Activity Against Postharvest Pathogens:
Citrus aurantium var. amara essential oil demonstrated fungistatic effects against Geotrichum citri-aurantii, a significant cause of citrus fruit decay. This suggests its potential application as a natural fungicide in the agricultural industry (Regnier, Combrinck, Veldman, & Plooy, 2014).

Cautions: Prolonged high use and high dosage may irritate the skin. It is slightly phytotoxic. The maximum dermal use is 1.25% (Tisserand & Young, pg. 371). Old or oxidized oils should be avoided.

The Bitter Orange Peel Video

Petitgrain Bigarade

Bitter Orange tree leaves, twigs, unripe fruit.
Citrus aurantium var. amara

From: Italy-(Bigarade type), Paraguay and many other places have another more common petitgrain. There are minor differences chemically.
Class: ester, alcohol, monoterpene. (Tisserand & Young pg. 375)

3 Key Constituents: Linalyl acetate (46-70%), linalool (19-29%), (+)-limonene-(Lawrence 1995 g. p. 107-110) Paraguay: Linalyl acetate, linalool, a-terpineol. (Tisserand & Young pg. 374). Steam distilled from leaves and twigs

Historically, the tiny, green, unripe fruit was used for oil, thus the name petitgrain, or little berry. The leaves, twigs, and branches are steam-distilled from March to May after the harvest of Neroli flowers or in October when small fruits appear. A good yield of one kilogram of oil is obtained from 150-200 kg of leafy twigs.

Bigarde is from the French word for the tree Bigaradier, which is from the Provencal Bigarrado, meaning “mottled.”

The aromatic hydrofoil from distillation is called Eau de trout, from which an absolute is made by solvent extraction for the perfume industry.

Petitgrain is also obtained from the twigs and leaves of Bergamot, Mandarin, Kaffir (C. hysteria), Sweet Orange and Lemon. These should be considered adulterants, albeit with their attractive scent and usage.

Uses:
Cosmetic: acne, boils, oily or dry skin, aids perspiration, tissue regenerator for scars and boils. Purchon and Cantele, pg. 97, say it regulates sebum for oily skin and hair and is particularly good for dandruff and acne. It has antiperspirant and deodorizing qualities. It is antifungal for ringworm and candidiasis. It may be helpful as a skin cell regenerator for scars, furuncles, and rosacea.
Respiratory: Eases breathing and respiratory infections. It calms coughs and cramps and combines well with Cypress/Marjoram for asthma and spasmodic coughs, including whooping cough.

Immune: mildly stimulating, may help people recover from illness.
Muscular: muscle spasms of nervous origins, muscle tone, joint inflammations, arthritis, and rheumatism.
Cardio: eases palpitations and cardiovascular spasms. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 163. It lowers blood pressure and reduces tachycardia and palpitations. It helps balance the autonomic nervous system and is helpful for chronic insomnia, menopausal hot flashes, and hyper-thyroid conditions. It may be beneficial in postpartum depression and worthy of a trial in tinnitus.
Digestive: gas, painful digestion, and chronic hepatitis.
Mind: insomnia, balances the central nervous system, nervous exhaustion, stress, mental fatigue, panic, anger, mental clarity; lifts the spirits. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 163. The oil reduces deep limbic and cingulate system hyperfunction, making it useful for bipolar disorder, ADHD, and mild anxiety-depressive states.

Combine with Ravintsara as nerve restorative in cases of fatigue, depression, anxiety and chronic insomnia. Combine with Angelica root as a cerebral sedative and restorative for ADD/ADHD or nervous breakdown. It may be helpful with Ylang-ylang 1 for asthma, tachycardia, hypertension and IBS. The oil relieves repetitive thinking and past regrets and helps one connect with gut feelings. Holmes (2019: 352-7).

TCM: Petitgrain helps regulate Qi, settles the Heart and harmonizes Shen. This makes it useful for the heart and liver Qi constraint in cases of insomnia, heart palpitations, mood swings, irritability and anxiety. It brings harmony to the digestive issues of the liver and stomach associated with stress. It relieves coughing and wheezing associated with Lung Qi accumulation, combining well with Sweet Fennel and cypress of Basil.

Perfumery: Top-mid note. Low odour intensity.

Research:

Antioxidant and Anticancer Activities:
Petitgrain, mandarin, and geranium oils have been analyzed for their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Notably, petitgrain mandarin oil significantly scavenges free radicals and displays anticancer activity against leukemia cell lines, highlighting its potential therapeutic benefits (Fayed, 2009).

Antimicrobial Activity:
A study on the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of commercial petitgrain oil derived from Citrus aurantium var. Amara demonstrated that the oil possesses substantial antibacterial activity, particularly against Bacillus subtilis, and less pronounced antifungal effects. The primary components identified include linalyl acetate and linalool (Gniewosz et al., 2017).

Mixes with bergamot, black pepper,  lavender, neroli, rosewood, and sandalwood.
Cautions: Cross-sensitivities with existing allergic reactions to balsams. It may be slightly irritating to some skin types.

The Petitgrain Video

Neroli/ Orange Blossom
Bitter Orange Tree Flowers
Citrus aurantium var. amara

From: Italy, Morocco, Tunisia, Guinea (W. Africa)
Class: monoterpenols (39-66%), monoterpenes (35-40%).

3 Key Constituents: 2-Phenylethanol, linalool (30-55%), linalyl acetate. (Anonis 1993; IFRA 2009).
Water distillation of flowers yields one kg from 700-1400 blossoms, making it an expensive oil. The flowers are hand-picked in the early morning. They are highly contaminated with sweet orange or lemon flowers. Neroli Portugal is distilled from blossoms of sweet orange, and Neroli citronnier is distilled from lemon flowers. Both are weaker and less desirable.

Petitgrain sur fleur neroli results from the co-distillation of bitter orange leaves with some blossoms.

Neroli and orange blossom are used somewhat interchangeably, but neroli refers to the steam-distilled essential oil, while orange blossom is used to mean specifically the enfleurage. It is the main ingredient in the original Eau de cologne. The scent is light, sweet, and floral-citrus, with hints of green, honeysuckle and lily of the valley.

Uses:
Cosmetic: thread veins, scars, stretch marks, dryness, devitalization, oiliness, acne, maturity, premature aging, and sensitive skin. Regenerates the skin and improves elasticity. Sheppard-Hanger pg. 161. It is beneficial for dry, sensitive, thin and fragile skin.
Respiratory: bronchitis, pleurisy.
Cardio is a cardiac and circulatory tonic that balances blood pressure and eases palpitations and hemorrhoids. When combined with petitgrain and bergamot, it may be helpful in hyperthyroidism.

A recent DB, PC trial of 140 patients with acute coronary syndrome found the Neroli group showed reduced anxiety compared to the placebo. Moslemi, F. et al. Journal of Alternative Complementary Medicine 2019 25(8): 833-839.
Digestive: colic, chronic diarrhea, gas, spasm, a tonic for the liver and pancreas.
Genito: aphrodisiac, depression with PMS and menopausal hot flushes. Sustains uterine tone during labour. Neroli is used in vaginal creams during menopause. It acts as a mild aphrodisiac for loss of libido, combining well with ylang-ylang 1.

A recent DB clinical trial of 62 students found inhaling neroli in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle improved PMS symptoms. Heydari, N. et al. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2018 32:1-5.

Immune: Purchon and Cantele pg. Eighty-eight say neroli displays activity against bacteria that cause respiratory and urinary infections. It is a potent anti-fungal and valuable for yeast infections like candida. It is anthelmintic and anti-protozoal against hookworm and giardiasis.
Mind: calming, shock, stress, anxiety, depression, insomnia. Suitable for those with PMS mood swings, irritability, and stress. Helpful for bipolar disorder, ADHD, pessimism, and negative feelings. Consider its use for worry, obsession, apprehension and panic, or in acute shock from trauma. It combines with jasmine, rose, clary sage, or ylang-ylang for various emotional applications.
Reports of dermatitis or allergy are rare.

Research:

Effects on Menopausal Symptoms and Stress:
Inhalation of the essential oil from Citrus aurantium var. amara (neroli oil) significantly improved menopausal symptoms, stress levels, and estrogen in postmenopausal women. This highlights its potential as a non-invasive treatment to alleviate menopausal symptoms and improve overall well-being (Choi, Kang, Lee, & Seol, 2014).

Menopausal Symptoms Alleviation: A randomized controlled trial highlighted the benefits of Neroli essential oil for women experiencing menopausal symptoms. Inhalation of neroli oil helped reduce stress and blood pressure and improve sexual desire, suggesting a potential role in balancing hormonal fluctuations during menopause (Step To Health). https://steptohealth.com/neroli-essential-oil-uses-benefits-and-contraindications/

Antibacterial Potential in Acne Treatment: Research showcased the antibacterial potential of a blend including Neroli hydrosol for acne treatment. The study found Neroli hydrosol effective, particularly when combined with May Chang, rosewood, and clove bud essential oils, highlighting its potential role in managing skin conditions​ (Tisserand Institute). https://tisserandinstitute.org/learn-more/new-research-essential-oils-acne/

Scalp Health Improvement: A study in Nature suggested that neroli oil’s antimicrobial and antifungal properties could help address scalp conditions like dandruff. By balancing scalp bacteria, neroli oil might reduce itchiness and flakiness, offering a natural remedy for scalp health​ (MBG). https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/neroli-oil

These studies underscore neroli essential oil’s potential in alleviating menopausal symptoms, treating acne through its antibacterial properties, and improving scalp health.

TCM: regulates Qi, settles the Heart and harmonizes Shen. For heart blood deficiency, combine with Palmarosa/Nutmeg/Cardamon, and for heart Qi deficiency, consider using rosemary, palmarosa, tea tree or nutmeg. For stagnation of lower limbs and varicosities, combine with geranium, yarrow or cypress.

Perfumery: Light floral, fruity, citrusy, orange-scented. Top-mid note. Low odour intensity.

It mixes with benzoin, bergamot, coriander, chamomile roman, frankincense, geranium, grapefruit, jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, lime, mandarin, orange, petitgrain, rose otto, sandalwood, ylang, and yuzu. It is interesting to note that neroli generally smells better diluted in carrier oil than neat. Its scent is light, and heavy scents can easily overpower it.

Petitgrain and Neroli are derived from the same tree but differ in usage. The former is rich in esters and monoterpenols, making it more relaxant than refreshing, and the latter is more dominant in monoterpenols and monoterpenes and, thus, more restorative and somewhat stimulating.

Mythology & Spirituality: *Magical Herbalism/Scott Cunningham
To put a person in the mood for marriage, wear this oil. Many women add it to their daily baths to build up their attractiveness. Sometimes known as “Mantrap.” Enough said!
*Encyclopedia of Signs, Omens, and Superstitions/Zolar

Neroli was produced by apothecaries in southern France in the early 1500s. Anna Marie de La Tremoille married into the Italian Nerola family and was renowned for extravagantly dousing her gloves with floral notes of bitter orange oil. Hence the name Oil of Neroli. “It evokes the theme of elevating physical love into spiritual love, redeeming sexual desire by a longing for true intimacy, and transforming pathological emotions into pure feelings…It is also one of the key oils for treating unresolved sexual trauma and the sticky residue of shame.” Holmes (2019: 319).
Orange, when given as a gift between lovers, encourages their affection. Brides who wear orange blossoms are held to have good luck. Since the orange is a prolific “fruiting” plant, the bride may not wish this luck! Spirit Lodge – Orange Tree

Orange blossom was historically woven into the bride’s bouquet to ensure good luck, happiness, and fertility. It was used for the innocent bride and women of the night and represents both innocence and seduction. History, Myths & Legends of Aromatherapy

*Note: Occasionally, flowers of the sweet orange tree are used. This product is called Neroli Portugal. Chinese Neroli (Poncirus trifoliata) is also used as an adulterant.

Caution: It may be sensitizing to some individuals. Do not use more than 10% in blends on the skin.

The Neroli/Orange Blossom Video

 

Ode to Neroli –Bitter Orange Tree Flowers

Student Project by Leanne McKinnon

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul
Sanguine you express, choleric you calm, melancholic you uplift
Why would one resist you?

 Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul
Enneagram 4 and 9, she is calling you
How would one resist you?

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul
1000 kilos of blossoms to make 1 kilo of your oil, exquisite
Why would one resist you?

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul
You rest on the bride’s bouquet to bring luck, happiness, fertility
Why would one resist you?

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul,
Regenerates the skin, helps lung affliction, strengthens cardio and circulation
Why would one resist you?

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul,
Watch the sun; you are sensitizing
Why would one resist you?

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul,
Pregnant and nursing mothers, children under 3, epileptics
Please resist thee!

Neroli, you have my heart, my mind, my soul,
I wear you daily, yes,
I can’t resist you!

Yuzu Reco: Citrus junos

From: Japan and Korea

3 Key Constituents: (+)-Limonene, y-Terpinene, B-Phellandrene-(Sawamura 2009).
Cold expression of the peel

Cosmetic: Diuretic
Immune: Stimulant, anti-infectious and antiseptic.
Muscular: Analgesic.
Mental and Nervous System: Calming and uplifting. Encourages focus and centring.

Perfumery: Head to heart note. Mild-mid odour intensity.

Mix with basil, bergamot, black pepper, cardamom, cedarwood, coriander, clary, cypress, ginger, jasmine, lavender, marjoram, palmarosa, pine, ravintsara, rose, rosemary, sandalwood, and ylang.
Spiritual: Used in religious ceremonies.

Research:

Inhibition of Harmful Compound Formation in Food:
Yuzu essential oil inhibits the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a potentially carcinogenic compound, in vegetables and saliva. This suggests that yuzu oil could reduce the risk of certain cancers associated with NDMA exposure (Sawamura et al., 2005).

Physiological and Psychological Effects of Yuzu Aromatherapy:
Inhalation of yuzu essential oil increases miosis rate and fingertip temperature, suggesting enhanced parasympathetic nervous system activity. It also reduces fatigue and improves feelings of refreshment and alertness, potentially aiding in better cognitive performance (Ohata et al., 2021).

Stress Reduction and Mood Improvement:
A study showed that inhaling yuzu fragrance significantly lowers salivary chromogranin A, an indicator of stress. It also improves mood states, reducing symptoms such as tension, depression, anger, and confusion for up to 30 minutes after inhalation (Matsumoto, Asakura, & Hayashi, 2014).

Aromatic Effects on Psychoemotional States and Autonomic Nervous System
The aroma of yuzu essential oil significantly decreases heart rate and improves autonomic nervous system activity, reducing stress and anxiety regardless of menstrual phase. It also enhances mood by reducing tension, anxiety, and fatigue. This effect is comparable to the relaxing properties of lavender essential oil, making yuzu a viable option for aromatherapy to alleviate premenstrual emotional symptoms (Matsumoto et al., 2016) (Matsumoto et al., 2017).

Chemical and Aroma Profiles
The chemical composition of yuzu peel oils from different cultivars has been studied, revealing key odorants like limonene, α-pinene, and linalool. This analysis helps us understand the unique aroma profile of yuzu, which is crucial for its application in food and aromatherapy. Various compounds contribute to the characteristic yuzu aroma, including (E)-non-6-enal and Yuzunone, which are identified for the first time as specific to yuzu essential oil (Lan‐Phi et al., 2009) (Miyazawa et al., 2009).

Cautions: Photosensitizing. Store in an airtight container in a cold, dark place.

The Yuzu Reco Video

You can go to your Practical Potions Journal. Downloads are below for some Rutaceae recipes!

Downloads

Unit 4A revised